Judging from the signing of the treaty, it was an equal agreement announced by the two sides through negotiation, but in fact, the negotiations between the two countries always went through a war-the decadent Qing Empire was not an opponent of modern imperialist countries in foreign economy and national defense. After a war, the China administration rarely took any "cheap" from the war, but let other countries take the initiative in the war, forcing the China administration to negotiate as a means to avoid greater losses; When negotiating, the agents of China government often have only the choice of "accepting" and "not accepting". As representatives sent by the autocratic emperor, these agents can only sign these treaties for the benefit of the royal family.
At present, most historians in China divide the unequal treaties signed before 1949 into three stages:
[Editor] The first stage (1840- 1860)
This stage is not only the beginning of China's transition from a monarchical society to a semi-colonial society, but also the formative stage of the colonial system established by the great powers in China. At this stage, the signing of treaty of nanking marks the establishment and initial formation of the unequal treaty system in China. Treaty of nanking, Humen Treaty, Wang Xia Treaty and Huangpu Treaty constitute the most important cornerstones of China's unequal treaty system. Through these three unequal treaties, the three most powerful capitalist countries in the world at that time: the United States, Britain and France gained the following rights in China:
The signing of treaty of nanking, the first unequal treaty in modern China, marked the beginning of a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society in China. Trade right in free foreign trade and unilateral MFN treatment.
The right to obtain agreed tariffs.
Get the right to preach in China and rent land to build houses.
Obtain consular jurisdiction.
Occupy part of China's territory.
These unequal rights constitute the earliest unequal treaty system in China, and subsequent concessions, inland river cruises and high reparations are only the continuation, development and supplement of the above rights.
1853, a knife uprising in Shanghai gave the British an excellent opportunity to control China Customs. 14 years after the first opium war, Britain and France once again provoked the second opium war to expand their rights and interests in China, which lasted for four years and brought a series of new treaties:
Sino-British, Sino-French, Sino-American, Sino-Russian Tianjin Treaty and Sino-Russian Aihui Treaty (1858)
Sino-British, Sino-French and Sino-Russian Beijing Treaty (1860)
The new unequal treaties brought about by this war deepened the degree of semi-colonization of China, and European and American countries gained some new treaty privileges:
Appetite for territorial claims.
Requirements for expanding foreign trade window.
Inland navigation rights.
Legal rights of opium trade.
The right to move freely in the mainland.
Workers' right to go abroad.
Most of the unequal treaties in this period revolved around trade. For the capitalist countries at that time, the improvement of productivity after the industrial revolution brought a large number of goods, and the profits from selling goods in the domestic market could not fully satisfy the capitalists' desires, so it was necessary to open up new overseas markets. Therefore, all countries adopt the economic policy of free trade, and all foreign policies formulated by the government are aimed at expanding trade targets and realizing commodity export. Opening the door to China, establishing colonies, demanding five-port trade and agreeing to tariffs are all concrete manifestations of this policy. Faced with the stubborn Qing government, countries used force to force the China government to negotiate first, and then obtained trade privileges and commodity markets.
[Edit] Phase II (1860- 19 19)
In this political cartoon, the world powers are carving up China's pie. After the signing of the Beijing Treaty, the Qing empire carried out the reform of the Westernization Movement. During the period after 1860, the Qing government was "peaceful at home and abroad", which was called "tongzhi zhongxing". However, the good times did not last long, and western capitalist countries entered the stage of imperialism one after another. 1876 Yantai treaty was signed due to the Ma Jiali incident. 1883, France launched a war of aggression against Vietnam. In this war known as the Sino-French War, the Qing army won a decisive victory on the land battlefield after losing the Mawei naval battle. At this time, the Qing government advocated victory and peace. 1885, Li Hongzhang signed the New Testament between China and France with French Minister Badeno, which humiliated the country. This war showed the achievements of the Westernization Movement, but it also exposed the serious shortcomings of the Westernization Movement.
At this time, Japan was in the Meiji Restoration period; They formulated the "mainland policy" of invading China and carried out their plan step by step by expanding their troops to prepare for war. 1885, Japan signed the Sino-Japanese Tianjin Treaty with the Qing Dynasty during the civil strife in Korea. After everything was ready, 1894, Japan launched the so-called Sino-Japanese War. Due to the corruption of the Qing government, the war soon failed. 1895 Li Hongzhang and Ito Bowen signed treaty of shimonoseki in Chunfan Building, Maguan, Japan.
Since then, the great powers have wantonly divided their spheres of influence in China and seized leased land, and the contradiction between the Chinese nation and foreign countries has intensified day by day. The Boxer Rebellion with the slogan of "Helping the Qing Dynasty to Destroy the Foreign Countries" rose rapidly in the north of China (there are similar movements in the south on a smaller scale). The Boxer Movement is also extremely exclusive, opposing aggression and hating all foreign things. Killing foreigners and China people who believe in Christianity everywhere in North China, burning churches, railways and other things related to foreign countries. Foreigners flocked to the embassy to take refuge. In the name of protecting overseas Chinese, the powers joined forces with Britain, France, the United States, Russia, Germany, Japan, Italy and Austria to enter China, then landed in Tianjin and headed for Beijing. The Qing government, on the other hand, asked the Boxers and Qing soldiers to besiege foreign embassies in Beijing and declare war on eleven countries. After Eight-Nation Alliance invaded Beijing, the Qing royal family left hastily; Li Hongzhang came forward to make peace with the powers in the name that the government was threatened by the Boxer Rebellion. The Boxer Rebellion was wiped out by Sino-foreign joint efforts. At the same time, Russia seized the opportunity to occupy the northeast of China. 190 1 year, Li Hongzhang, on behalf of the Qing government, signed the "Xin Chou Treaty" with 1 1 country. Because of the contradiction between the great powers, China was prevented from being carved up. However, the treaty has punitive provisions for China, including allowing foreign countries to station troops from Beijing to Tianjin and compensating countries for their large military expenditures. Li Hongzhang died of illness soon. This treaty further weakened the rule of the Qing government.
Photos taken when the treaty between Xin and Chou was signed. The treaty imposed various punitive provisions on China. [Editor] Stage III (19 19- 1949)
At this stage, the unequal treaty system rooted in China for nearly 80 years began to shake. Earlier, the Soviet Union announced the abolition of the unequal treaty signed between Tsarist Russia and China (there have been rumors, but there is no evidence that the Soviet Union did this or made this statement. ); Domestic democratic consciousness and the concept of saving the nation from extinction are rising day by day, and large-scale mass gatherings are one after another. The Beiyang government at that time was under great pressure. 19 19 The May 4th Movement broke out, which showed the determination of the Chinese nation not to be trampled on. As a result, at the Paris Peace Conference held in France, the representative of China did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, which harmed the rights and interests of China. Shortly thereafter, with the realization of unified Russia, the Kuomintang of China led the Northern Expedition. Since the founding of the Nanjing National Government of the Republic of China in 1927, there have been continuous movements to reclaim power and amend the New Testament in Chinese mainland, which greatly satisfied China's national pride.
1927 During the Northern Expedition, some British concessions were recovered, which was the first time that China publicly recovered its sovereignty. The picture shows the National Revolutionary Army taking over the British Concession. During this period, although the government in charge of state power did not dare to completely abolish all unequal treaties, it had already recovered some state sovereignty. Its main activities are:
Withdrawal of Concessions: including the British Concessions in Hankou and Jiujiang ordered by the National Government in June 1927+ 10; 1 930 65438+1October1recapture British-occupied Ahava; 193 1 year 1 month 65438+5 to recover the Belgian concession in China.
Recovering tariff sovereignty: one of the achievements of the New Testament Movement: 1933, the National Government implemented new tariffs, which indicated that China basically realized tariff autonomy.
Abolish consular jurisdiction and MFN treatment.
However, this series of activities did not completely rid China of the semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, because China's national strength at that time was not enough to confront the world powers, and the government was afraid of the strong reaction or even the use of force that countries might make after the abolition of the unequal treaties; The national government needs foreign economic and diplomatic support and cannot accept the situation of international isolation. Therefore, after the 1930s, the unequal treaty system was strengthened again. However, countries no longer use the threat of force, but exchange certain economic interests or interests unrelated to the overall situation of China for privileges, or create public opinion advantages to exaggerate the interests of signing treaties first. For example, the "Hemei Agreement" means that Japan first created "North China independence", then explained to the outside world the benefits brought by unprotected North China through public opinion, and finally let the National Government accept the agreement.
Soon, World War II broke out in an all-round way. Because China was at war with Italy and Japan, the unequal treaties in China were abolished. In order to maintain the stability of the anti-fascist alliance, on June194365438+1October 1 1 day, the United States and Britain signed the Sino-US New Testament and the Sino-British New Testament respectively, voluntarily giving up their privileges in the allied country China.
1949 In September, the China People's Political Consultative Conference held in Peiping adopted the same program. Article 55 of the program publicly declared that "the China people * * and the China Central People's Government shall recognize, repeal, modify or rewrite the treaties and agreements made by the Kuomintang respectively. 」
[Edit] list
The following is a list of treaties that the China government or most people in China consider unequal.
Tanggu Agreement (signed in Tanggu, China on May 3 1 22 (1933))
China-Russia-Mongolia Treaty (signed on June 7, 2005 (19 15) by China, Russia and outer Mongolia).
People's Republic of China (PRC) Article 4 Treaty (Article 21) (signed by China, Japan and Beijing on May 25, 2004 (19 15)).
Manzhouli Border Agreement (19 1 1 year (3 years in Xuan Tong) 65438+February 20th, China and Russia, signed in Manzhouli).
China and Britain renewed the Tibet-India Treaty (1906 (thirty-two years of Guangxu), April 27th, signed in Beijing).
The meeting between China and Japan in the three northeastern provinces is about (1905 (Guangxu 3 1 year) 65438+February 22nd, and the signing place is Beijing).
The Treaty of Love and Ugliness (190 1 year (the 27th year of Guangxu), signed in Beijing).
Guangzhou Bay Concession Treaty (time: 1899 (25th year of Guangxu) 165438+ 10/6); Signing place: Guangzhou Bay; China and French)
Make an appointment for ahava (time: 1898 (Guangxu 24th year) July1; Signing place: Beijing; China and the United Kingdom)
Special article on expanding Hong Kong's borders (time: 1898 (Guangxu 24th year), June 9th; Signing place: Beijing; China and the United Kingdom)
The Sino-Russian Land Lease Treaty (1898 (the 24th year of Guangxu)) was signed in Beijing on March 27th. 1On May 7th, 898, the land renewal treaty of the brigade was signed in Petersburg, Russia).
Sino-German Jiaoao Concession Treaty (1898 (the 24th year of Guangxu reign), March 6th, Beijing; China and German)
Sino-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896 (22nd year of Guangxu), signed in Beijing on July 26th, 2 1).
Sino-Russian Secret Treaty (1June 3, 896 (Guangxu 22nd year), Moscow)
Treaty of shimonoseki (1895 (Guangxu 2 1) April 17, Shimonoseki and Japan)
Sino-British Conference (1890 (Guangxu16) March 17, Kolkata, India; Supplementary revision:1893 65438+February 5, Darjeeling)
Sino-Portuguese Reconciliation Trade Treaty (1887 (Guangxu 1 3) 65438+February1,with Portugal, Beijing)
Sino-French New Testament (1885 (Guangxu 1 1), Tianjin)
Sino-British Yantai Treaty (1876 (Guangxu 2 years) Yantai; China and the United Kingdom)
Special performance between China and Japan in Beijing (1874 (Tongzhi 13)65438+ 10/)
On the Northwest Border between China and Russia (1864 (Tongzhi 3 years) 65438+1October 7, Talbahatai)
Sino-German Trade Treaty (Tianjin September 2 186 1 (Xianfeng, 1 1))
the treaty of beijing
Sino-Russian Beijing Treaty (1860 (Xianfeng10)165438+10/4, Beijing)
Beijing Sino-French Treaty (1860 (Xianfeng 10) 10, Beijing)
Sino-British Beijing Treaty (1860 (Xianfeng 10) 10, Beijing)
Tianjin treaty
Sino-French Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (June 27th, Xianfeng 8th year))
Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (eighth year of Xianfeng), June 26th)
Sino-American Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (June 8, Xianfeng))
Sino-Russian Treaty of Tianjin (Tianjin, 1858 (June 8, Xianfeng))
Sino-Russian treaty of infatuation (Aihui, 1858 (eighth year of Xianfeng), May 28th)
Lease of British-French-American Concession in Shanghai (Shanghai, 1854 (July 5th, Xianfeng, 4th year))
Chartered flight, China-Russia Talbahatai Trade in Yili (Yili, 185 1 (the first year of Xianfeng), August 6th).
Huangpu Treaty (1844 (24 th year of Daoguang) 65438+24 October, with Huangpu, France)
Wang Xia Treaty (1844 (24th year of Daoguang), signed with the United States and Wang Xia on July 3rd).
Treaty of Humen (1843 (23 years of Daoguang) 10/0/8 October, with Britain, Humen)
Treaty of nanking (1842 (twenty-two years of Daoguang), August 29th, and Nanjing, England).
19 17 years, Germany and Austria-Hungary became hostile countries of China in World War I, and the unequal treaties were abolished. 19 17 The Soviet Union voluntarily gave up its privileges in China (it was not fully realized afterwards, nor did it return the territory acquired in the treaty). 1943, the United States and Britain voluntarily gave up their privileges in China. Italy and Japan lost their special status because they became enemies of China in World War II. 1946, the French gave up their privileges in China.
1949 after the founding of People's Republic of China (PRC), it did not recognize all the unequal treaties signed before.