In order to survive and develop, enterprises must create value for their shareholders and other interest groups, including employees, customers, suppliers, regions and related industries. If we open the "black box" of "enterprise", we can decompose the process of enterprise creating value into a series of different but interrelated economic activities, or "value-added activities", the sum of which constitutes the "value chain" of the enterprise. Any enterprise is a collection of activities carried out in the design, production, sales, delivery and after-sales service of its products. Every management activity is a link in this value chain. The value chain of an enterprise and the way it carries out a single activity reflect the history, strategy, implementation method and main economic situation of the activity itself.
The value chain can be divided into two parts: basic value-added activities and auxiliary value-added activities. The basic value-added activities of enterprises are "production and operation links" in the general sense, such as material supply, finished product development, production and operation, finished product storage and transportation, marketing and after-sales service. These activities are directly related to the processing and circulation of commodity entities. Auxiliary value-added activities of enterprises include organizational construction, personnel management, technology development and procurement management. The technology and procurement here are generalized, which can include both productive technology and unproductive development management, such as decision-making technology, information technology and planning technology. Procurement management includes not only the production of raw materials, but also the management of other resources, for example, hiring relevant consulting companies to carry out advertising planning, market forecasting, legal consultation, information system design, long-term strategic planning, etc.
All the links in the value chain are interrelated and influence each other. The management of one link can affect the costs and benefits of other links. For example, if you spend more money on purchasing high-quality raw materials, you can reduce the number of processes, produce fewer defective products and shorten the processing time. Although every link in the value chain is related to other links, the extent to which a link can influence the value activities of other links is closely related to its position in the value chain. According to the flow procedure of product entities in each link of the value chain, the value activities of enterprises can be divided into two categories: "upstream link" and "downstream link". In the basic value activities of enterprises, material supply, product development and production and operation can be called "upstream links"; Finished product storage and transportation, marketing and after-sales service can be called "downstream links". The center of upstream economic activities is products, which are closely related to the technical characteristics of products; The center of the downstream link is the customer, and the success or failure mainly depends on the customer characteristics.
Whether in the production industry or the service industry, the basic activities of enterprises can be expressed by the value chain, but the specific value composition of different industries is not exactly the same, and the importance of the same link in various industries is not the same. For example, in the agricultural products industry, because the products themselves are relatively simple, the competition is mainly manifested in price competition, which generally does not require advertising and marketing, and the requirements for after-sales service are not particularly strong. Accordingly, the downstream links of the value chain have relatively little influence on the overall effect of enterprise management; In many industries with high technical requirements, such as industrial machinery industry, after-sales service is often the key to success or failure of competition.
Second, the value chain and the competitive advantage of enterprises
The basic viewpoint of "value chain" theory is that not every link creates value in the numerous "value activities" of enterprises. The value created by enterprises actually comes from some specific value activities in the enterprise value chain; These truly value-creating business activities are the "strategic links" of the enterprise value chain. In the final analysis, the advantages of enterprises in competition, especially those that can be maintained for a long time, are the advantages of enterprises in some specific strategic value links of the value chain. The monopoly advantage of the industry comes from the monopoly advantage of some specific links in the industry. Grasping these key links will also grasp the whole value chain. These strategic links that determine the success or failure of enterprise management and benefit can be product development, process design, marketing, information technology, knowledge management and so on. , depending on different industries. In the high-end fashion industry, this strategic link is generally design ability; In the cigarette industry, this strategic link is mainly advertising and public relations strategy (that is, how to deal with the efforts of various governments and consumer organizations to quit smoking); In the catering industry, this strategic link is mainly the location of restaurants.
Although, as mentioned above, different industries have different value chains, and the same link has different functions in different industries, for large enterprises, such as multinational companies, the key link in the value chain, namely core competence, can be diffused and transplanted in related industries, thus improving the competitive advantage of enterprises, especially multinational companies. Multinational companies have the scope economy effect of global cross-industry marketing in international marketing activities. This kind of scope economy effect is obtained by multinational companies through the optimal utilization of general elements and resources. This common element can be common production equipment, management experience, marketing skills and research and development capabilities. Because the existence of common elements can be found in almost every link of the value chain, when the key link in the value chain of two industries, that is, the core competence needs the same common elements, multinational companies will spread their core competence in one industry to another related industry, thus transforming the scope economy effect into the scope economy advantage. Therefore, the advanced knowledge, experience and skills acquired by multinational companies in marketing communication activities in one industry can be transferred to other related industries without great additional investment. For example, Philip Moliis Company in the United States is a famous tobacco company, which has created a global cigarette brand like Marlboro. After entering the food industry, the company brought its excellent marketing communication skills such as advertising and marketing promotion, making brands such as Miller Beer quickly become the leading brands in the United States and go global.
When multinational companies carry out global marketing, the advantages of scope economy can be transferred to the newly entered national market at the same time. According to the country's specific market environment, multinational companies choose products from related industries in a planned way and import them one after another, forming economies of scope in market research, promotion skills and the same channels, especially the synergistic effect of promotion behavior, which has important strategic significance for multinational companies to establish an overall image in the local area. For example, in many countries, including China, Philips has launched many products from its lighting, microelectronics, computer hardware, household appliances and other related industries, and used the same slogan "Let's do better", which makes the company's image very distinct. Despite years of poor operating conditions, according to the survey, Philips' popularity in the China market is much higher than that of strong competitors such as General Electric. Other multinational companies, such as the consumer goods industry, have introduced household detergents, consumer paper products, personal care products and food and health care products in all countries' markets, which are all examples of multinational companies gaining economies of scale.
Obviously, to maintain the monopoly advantage of a product, the key is to maintain the monopoly advantage of strategic links in the product value chain, not necessarily to maintain the monopoly advantage of all value activities. The strategic link should be tightly controlled within the enterprise, and many non-strategic activities can be contracted out through contracts, making full use of the market to reduce costs and increase flexibility. The monopoly of strategic links can take many forms, such as the monopoly of key raw materials, the monopoly of key talents, the monopoly of key sales channels and key markets and so on. For example, in many industries that compete with special skills, such as advertising, performance and sports, this monopoly advantage usually comes from the monopoly of several key talents; In many industries that compete by product characteristics, this monopoly advantage often comes from the monopoly of key technologies or raw material formulas, such as the formula of Coca-Cola and the special seasoning formula of McDonald's "Big Mac" hamburgers, which are top secret trade secrets. In the high-tech product industry, this monopoly advantage usually comes from the monopoly of several key production technologies, such as the chip production technology of computers, which has created the global chip giant IN-TEL. Microsoft, on the other hand, has unparalleled innovation ability in the field of computer software. Since its establishment, Guangzhou Procter & Gamble Company has established the image of "Procter & Gamble Company, Quality Product" with the business philosophy of "world-class products, beautify your life". In order to maintain its concept of high-quality products, the company employs more than 65,438+000 professional technicians all over the world and spends 8%-65,438+00% of its sales (about 500-700 million yuan) on special product research every year. P&G believes that only by continuously developing product functions and improving scientific and technological content can we occupy the market. The concept of high-quality products is not the same as national and industry standards. In order to develop the concept of high-quality products, P&G spends 65,438+0%-3% of its sales every year on various market research. In P&G's words, high-quality products must be products contracted by consumers, and the core functions and peripheral functions of products meet the needs of consumers.
The monopoly position of these buildings in the strategic links directly related to products is sometimes easy to understand. Relatively speaking, the monopoly advantages of various buildings in the "auxiliary value-added activities" of the value chain are little known. Let's try to discuss the monopoly advantage of IBM in organizational structure. The advantages of IBM in the world computer market largely come from the strong organizational system formed by IBM's value chain layout, which is developed in the process of long-term design, production, sales and maintenance of large commercial computers. As far as the production of personal computers is concerned, IBM is quite backward; None of the key production technologies of personal computers are in IBM's hands. However, IBM's global organizational structure and maintenance service network, as well as the reputation of "high quality service" established over the years, are beyond the reach of other companies. Although IBM does not produce any key components of personal computers, and the original components used in personal computers marked with IBM brand are purchased from other companies, personal computers with IBM brand are still favored by consumers, and their prices are higher than other "miscellaneous" computers with the same quality. The main reason here is that IBM's reputation and global sales, maintenance and service organization system provide consumers with the quality assurance they need to buy technically complex products. Because this quality assurance is a strategic link in the value chain of personal computer production and marketing, and IBM has a monopoly advantage in this link, which makes IBM, which does not produce personal computers, become an important industry giant in the personal computer industry.
Third, the choice of value chain and international marketing strategy
From the analysis of the concept and composition of the value chain, we can know that the value activities of enterprises can be divided into "upstream links" and "downstream links". In the basic value activities of enterprises, material supply, product development and production and operation can be called "upstream links"; Finished product storage and transportation, marketing and after-sales service can be called "downstream links". The economic activity center of the upstream link is the product, which is closely related to its technical characteristics, and its efficiency affects the whole value chain system. For example, once new products and processes are developed, they can be applied in many markets and regions, and their advantages are of universal significance.
Accordingly, if the upstream link plays a key role in the marketing of a product, relying on product technology and mass production, its competitive nature is likely to be "global market"-style all-round three-dimensional competition, and large commercial passenger planes, automobiles and computers all belong to this category. Therefore, if the transnational operation of enterprises mainly depends on the advantages of upstream links, they can adopt the "global" marketing strategy. The homogenization trend of some consumers' demand in the international market also supports this strategy.
Although the cultural background of different national markets is very different, the requirements for products and services in different national markets are similar. Consumers all over the world are absorbing what they think is good from other societies. From spiritual products to material products, a new consumption phenomenon-the consumption trend across cultural boundaries-is taking shape. This situation, to a great extent, comes from education and knowledge transmission. Education leads to a higher level of technological achievements, and at the same time, it will eliminate differences in lifestyle. In addition, the promotion and popularization of media, especially television, and the development of the Internet have also accelerated the development of this trend. Due to the development of these modern media, people can immediately obtain all kinds of information in modern life in the world. Barriers to political, economic and cultural exchanges have been greatly reduced, international exchanges at all levels have become closer and closer, and the world has become smaller and smaller. Young people in Denmark, Germany, Japan and the United States grew up eating hamburgers, wearing jeans and playing guitars. Their lifestyles, aspirations and wishes are very similar.
For those world-famous big companies, this consumption trend is a welcome opportunity, and they are working hard to promote it day and night. The homogenization of demand can greatly reduce the inventory, procurement and production costs of manufacturers and increase their competitiveness. By creating famous brands and urging consumers with different cultural backgrounds around the world to pursue famous brands, these enterprises can obtain huge sales income and considerable profits. A survey of 90,000 consumers in the United States, Japan and Europe 10 shows that the world's10 famous brands are Coca-Cola, Marlboro, IBM, McDonald's, Disney, Sony, Kodak, Motorola, Gillette and Nike, all of which belong to top multinational companies.
Once multinational corporations are aware of some * * * characteristics arising from the cultural intersection in China, they can design products that are universally used, use the same advertisements to change the description of knowledge, and promote them to various markets in the world with the help of the reputation and credibility of multinational corporations and their own channels. "The product of multinational corporations" is not only an article with use value to meet people's material needs, but also a value complex and cultural feelings that can meet people's spiritual and sensory needs.
On the contrary, it is the economic activity of the downstream link. The center of the downstream link is the customer, as well as various business activities (such as advertising, channel strategy, promotion methods, etc. ) are closely related to the characteristics of consumers, and the competitive advantage of enterprises is transferred according to the local market supply and demand, customs and culture. For example, powerful sales channels and popular advertising languages often have local characteristics, so it is difficult to simply copy and transplant them. If the advantages of downstream links dominate the marketing of a product, then the competitive nature of the industry is likely to be an independent local competition model of "transnational market" type. Enterprises that compete internationally by virtue of the advantages of downstream links often have distinct local and regional colors, and the strategy of success in the local area may not necessarily bring success to other markets. In this regard, Unilever and Procter & Gamble, the two major consumer goods giants in the world, have had similar lessons.
Since Unilever entered the China market, it has suffered a lot and learned a lot: don't treat China as a single market, and there are great differences in income, customs, policies and business in different regions. The strategy of national reunification is difficult to implement, so we should learn to think and adjust measures to local conditions. Whether entering a market or not, the cornerstone of the strategy should not be on the policy and the relationship with the government, and try to keep up with the changes in the market environment in China. No matter how successful your industrial model is in other places.
Wang Baojie, the first manufacturer of baby diapers in the United States and one of the world-renowned marketing strategies, has also learned a very representative lesson in the transnational operation of baby diapers. In 1980s, Procter & Gamble introduced the most popular baby diapers in American market to Hong Kong and Germany. Under normal circumstances, every time P&G enters a market, it has to go through a "field trial sale" to find possible problems. But this time, P&G thinks that diapers are diapers and baby urine is baby urine. This kind of diapers has been sold in the United States for many years and has been well received. Therefore, it decided to go beyond the trial sale stage and directly enter the Hong Kong and German markets. But what happened next was far beyond P&G's expectation. Hong Kong consumers complained that P&G diapers were too thick, while German consumers complained that P&G diapers were too thin and lacked water absorption. How can the same cloth be too thick and too thin at the same time? After detailed investigation, Procter & Gamble found that although the average urine output of a baby is roughly the same, the usage habits of baby cloth in Hong Kong and Germany are quite different. Consumers in Hong Kong regard the baby's comfort as a mother's top priority, and change diapers as soon as the child urinates. Therefore, P&G diapers are too thick. German mothers are more institutionalized, changing a diaper for their children in the morning and changing it at night, so P&G's diapers are too thin.
Therefore, after P&G entered the China market, it paid more attention to the particularity of the China market. In order to know more about consumers in China, P&G has established a perfect market research system in China, followed consumers and tried to establish a lasting communication relationship with consumers. P&G's market research department in China has set up a huge database to analyze and feed back consumers' opinions to the production department in time, so as to produce products more suitable for China consumers.