The four-year "Jing Nan Change" had a great influence on the national defense of the Ming Dynasty.

During the Hongwu period, Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang established a national defense system dedicated to defense against the Mongolian people in the north and the Japanese pirates in the southeast coast. On the one hand, Mongolia adopted the strategy of enfeoffment, and built a barrier along the Great Wall; On the other hand, the countermeasures of sea ban and coastal defense were implemented to harass the Japanese pirates, and a strict defense system was established in the southeast coast. After the formation of the defense system, the second half of the Hongwu Dynasty temporarily gained a stable situation in national defense.

However, the domestic chaos caused by the "Jing Nan Change" not only led to the neglect of land management, but also the national defense system of the Ming Dynasty was shaken.

First, the civil strife led to the paralysis of the defense system of the northern captaincy, and the Mongolian people who had been suppressed took the opportunity to regain power. Second, during the period of civil strife, the maritime ban and coastal defense system were abandoned, which induced maritime smuggling trade and the rise of the enemy. It can be said that whether Yongle Emperor was willing or not, he was faced with the problem of rebuilding the national defense system between the north and the south at the beginning of his accession to the throne. However, after the civil strife, the Ming dynasty did not take an active offensive to solve the national defense problem. The first task of Yongle regime is to solve internal problems and consolidate the foundation of the regime. Therefore, the main countermeasures in foreign affairs can only be to temporarily maintain the status quo, adopt a safe and peaceful policy of appeasement, and create a stable international environment for internal affairs construction.

Use Wala to contain Tatar.

At that time, there were two powerful tribes in Mongolian grassland, one originated from the Mongolian Yuan system and located in the Tatar Department in the east, and the other was the emerging Wala Department in the northwest. Especially after the rapid rise of the Wala Ministry, the original power map of Mongolian grassland has been greatly changed. At the climax of the Jing Nan Rebellion, the Wala Department sent messengers to show kindness to the Prince of Yan, and kept a distance from the Tatar Department, constantly strengthening its own strength.

The basic principle of Yongle Emperor's policy towards Mongolia is to use the contradictions between them to contain each other and consume each other's strength. At first, the Ming Dynasty attached great importance to the Tatar Department and asked them to pay tribute to it many times, but they never wanted to join the Ming Dynasty. On the contrary, in the sixth year of Yongle (1408), the Wala Department took the initiative to pay tribute to Daming, and Emperor Yongle conferred the titles of three tribal chiefs as Shunning King, Xianyi King and Anle King respectively, forming a relationship with them. At this point, the system of using Wala to contain Tatar was initially completed.

During this period, the Ming Dynasty adopted a policy of appealing to the east and west ends of Mongolian grassland. In Manchuria in the east, the Ming dynasty actively wooed and wooed the local Jurchen tribes, which made many Jurchen tribes join the Ming court and were incorporated into the Wei Institute one by one. During the Hongwu period, there were only five "detention centers", and by the middle of Yongle, there were nearly 200. In this way, Daming unconsciously built a close monitoring system for Mongolia.

In addition, in the western part of Mongolian grassland, the Hami Wang family at the eastern end of Tianshan Mountains was canonized as "the loyal and obedient king" and Hami Wei was set up as a strategy of indirect rule over Mongolian frontline base. The Wangs in Hami were originally a branch of the Mongols. Controlling them is an indispensable measure from the perspective of foreign trade and strategy. At this point, at the beginning of Yongle, the encirclement network of Mongolia from the east, south and west, which was built by Jurchen, Ming Dynasty and Hami, was formally formed.

Rebuilding the international order in East Asia

/kloc-At the beginning of the 5th century, the international order in East Asia was rapidly rebuilt under the impetus of Emperor Yongle. The characteristic of this period is that not only China is pushing, but also neighboring countries need to use the authority of China. How much influence did the decline of Yuan Dynasty's power have on the political changes of neighboring countries for the time being? Just like the interlocking influence of the Yuan and Ming revolutions, there were regime changes in neighboring countries one after another.

On the Korean peninsula, with the decline of Korea, 1392, the Korean dynasty rose and replaced it, and the Yongle Emperor officially accepted the Ming Dynasty. Japan, which unified the Northern and Southern Dynasties in 1392, also took the initiative to submit to the Ming Dynasty after a lapse of 900 years. In Annan, Hu seized the political power from Chen. In the early days of Yongle, he came to China to pay tribute and asked for conferment. However, his seizure of power and accession to the throne caused doubts, which eventually developed into the military intervention of the Ming Dynasty to pacify Annan. Seeking the legitimacy of their own political power and trade exchanges is the main purpose of these countries' request for conferring tribute in China.

During the period of 14 and 15 century, with the trend of social and economic integration in East Asia, problems such as the rampant Japanese pirates and the expansion of trade circles have always been the focus of academic research. Of course, this also implies that the trend of East Asian integration is closely and organically related to the political development of East Asian countries. Among them, the most representative event is Japan's accession to the canonization system, which symbolizes the political integration of East Asia. If Japan is willing, East Asia does have a * * * communication foundation to accept it.

Same father and son

In fact, little known is that Zhu Yuanzhang, the father of Yongle Emperor, is also a believer of Kublai Khan. Whenever something happens, he will talk about the prosperous time of "four foreigners paying tribute" during Kublai Khan's reign, and fairly evaluate the Yuan Dynasty's rule in China. The phrase "submission at home and abroad" can best represent his deep thoughts and yearning when talking about Kublai Khan. Considering the influence of the Northern Yuan Dynasty, he can't praise Kublai Khan directly, but he can be sure that he often appreciates Kublai Khan in his heart. For Zhu Yuanzhang, a former Yuan Dynasty man, Kublai Khan was close at hand, which was beyond our imagination.

Kublai Khan of Yuan Shizu

However, shortly after the founding of the People's Republic of China, Daming, as an emperor, could only devote himself to stabilizing the political foundation, and could not expand the territory like Kublai Khan. For him, it is enough to establish an international order in East Asia centered on Daming, and unnecessary foreign conquest can only be a waste of human and financial resources. In his "Ancestral Instructions of Emperor Ming", he stipulated that Daming was a "country without expropriation" and it was strictly forbidden to use force at will, which was also the manifestation of his political system. He cherished the vision of "Kublai Khan's flourishing age", but he never became Kublai Khan.

Emperor Yongle launched an active diplomatic strategy completely different from Zhu Yuanzhang's. During his reign, the territory of the Ming Dynasty reached an unprecedented breadth. Although he resorted to force against Mongolia and Annan, under his active promotion, the number of tributes from neighboring countries in China far exceeded that during the Hongwu period. In the lower reaches of Heilongjiang (amur river) in Northeast China, the Nuer Gandu Division was set up, and Manchuria was completely under the jurisdiction of the Ming Dynasty. Starting from the division of Tibet, exchanges with the West have become increasingly frequent. The "toast system" implemented in Yunnan and other places in the southwest during the Hongwu period was more perfect at this time.

It is said that Emperor Yongle's active diplomatic strategy has a lot to do with his life in Peiping when he was young. Beiping is the old capital of the Yuan Dynasty, and it is an international metropolis where many ethnic groups live together and the eastern and western cultures meet. It has a special cultural atmosphere compared with Nanjing, which is completely inhabited by Han people. Emperor Yongle, who grew up in this environment, naturally wanted to go outside to broaden his horizons, which was complementary to his brilliant and imposing personality. It was this open personality that determined his aggressive diplomacy.

There are indeed some factors in this respect. It is conceivable that the international atmosphere in Beiping has had a great influence on the formation of his thoughts. In particular, Kublai Khan, who built the capital of the Yuan Dynasty, certainly left a deep impression on him. But even so, the most important reason is probably the illegality of his accession to the throne.

As mentioned above, when Emperor Yongle ascended the throne, he assumed himself as the successor of Mao Zhu Yuanzhang. But if he is only satisfied with Mao's successor, he can't wash away the stigma of usurper. If we want to legalize the "intra-dynasty revolution (that is, usurping the throne)" and create a new imperial system, we must create a "prosperous time" that everyone should recognize, which is an inheritance of Taizu politics and a kind of transcendence.

So, what can we do to surpass Mao and gain the recognition of everyone? That is, of course, to realize the unprecedented prosperity of "four foreigners paying tribute" in the Taizu era, and to create the image of a true son of heaven. In this case, the Yongle emperor should not follow the example of Emperor Taizong, but Yuan Shizu Kublai Khan.

Create a new China

Kublai Khan's King's Landing spans the "world" of Eurasia and rules the largest territory in the history of the Chinese Empire. Emperor Yongle claimed to be Kublai Khan, and wanted to approach and surpass Kublai Khan, so as to clear his name.

Whether Kublai Khan will become the son of heaven in the Chinese world is not discussed here for the time being. According to the Chinese-style theory, that is, the concept of Chinese-foreign order, the "prosperous time of Kublai Khan" paid tribute by the four foreigners was given special significance, and Kublai Khan was pushed to the altar of "the true son of heaven". Therefore, Mao Zhu Yuanzhang admired Kublai Khan, and at this point, there is no difference between Yongle Emperor and Zhu Yuanzhang, and they all follow the traditional Chinese-foreign order.

Yongle Emperor was keen on establishing Chinese-foreign order, while Taizu Zhu Yuanzhang paid more attention to internal affairs. Therefore, it can be said that Yongle Emperor is not only the successor of Mao Zhu Yuanzhang, but also the successor of Yuan Dynasty or Kublai Khan. He surpassed Zhu Yuanzhang and created a new China. After the death of Emperor Yongle, he was given the temple name of "Chengzu", which is as noble as "Taizu". Judging from his achievements, it is not without reason. After Emperor Yongle ascended the throne, he once again staged a drama comparable to the Yuan and Ming revolutions.

Enlarged China

Among the foreign policies actively promoted by Yongle Emperor, Zheng He's trip to the South China Sea was the expedition to the South China Sea with eunuch Zheng He as the general commander. In terms of scale, what is truly unprecedented is the seven overseas expeditions in the twenty-nine years from the third year of Yongle (1405) to the eighth year of Xuande (1433). The last seventh expedition was already in the reign of Emperor Xuande, the grandson of Emperor Yongle, so there were only six overseas expeditions during the Yongle period.

A painting depicting Zheng He's voyage to the West (circa 1558)

Zheng He led the world's largest fleet on an expedition overseas. For example, on the first expedition, there were more than 27,800 soldiers accompanying them, and there were 62 warships in the fleet, including many small boats. According to statistics, the largest ship known as the "treasure ship" is about 150 meters long and 60 meters wide. The exact figures may be different, but it is conceivable that the "treasure ship" is a large-scale war ship. Only a voyage of this scale can go down in history.

They not only visited Southeast Asian countries several times, but also extended their routes every time they sailed, reaching countries along the Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf and Red Sea, as far as the east coast of Africa. As many as 30 countries have visited, and every time they come back from sailing, they return home with the envoys of the visiting countries. Although Zheng He's seven great voyages were called "expeditions to the South China Sea" (China called them "Zheng He's voyages to the Western Seas"), they were not military expeditions, but visits aimed at establishing peaceful and friendly international relations.

This epoch-making voyage was concentrated in the early15th century, and then why was it suddenly interrupted? The question surrounding this question has always been a hot topic in academic research, and various speculations and explanations have always been constant. Some people say that Zheng He's voyage to the West is to find the Emperor Jianwen who fled to the south, some say it is to clear up the remnants of Zhang Shicheng, a hero in the late Yuan Dynasty, some say it is to open up overseas markets, and others say it is to make his country famous overseas ... There are various statements.

Among many statements, it is now generally accepted in academic circles that Zheng He's sailing behavior is generally for the expansion and development of overseas trade.

Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang established the dual system of "sea ban-tribute", while the free trade among the people was completely banned in Yongle period. In this case, the only way for the Ming Dynasty to obtain the needed materials steadily was to strengthen the tribute trade. Especially in the Ming dynasty, luxury prevailed in the upper class, and the demand for overseas luxury goods increased day by day. Therefore, the expectation of overseas trade also increased year by year. It can be said that under this domestic background, Zheng He's expedition is, of course, to promote overseas trade for the purpose of overseas prestige.

Trade is secondary.

However, is this really the purpose of Zheng He's overseas expedition? Besides, he sailed more than once, but seven times in a row. Not to mention how many benefits can be gained from seven expeditions, and the huge amount of financial resources and materials consumed by expeditions far exceeds the income, which is also very obvious. If the purpose is to obtain overseas products and economic benefits, it can be obtained through many channels, and there is no need to deliberately adopt this complicated way.

Speaking of it, the foreign trade in Yongle era is often covered up by the active diplomacy of Yongle Emperor, resulting in many misunderstandings. For example, Emperor Yongle relaxed the sea ban, rewarded international trade and exempted the tariffs on incidental materials in tribute trade, which easily made people think that Emperor Yongle attached importance to foreign trade. If the increase in the number of tributary countries is also understood as the result of Yongle Emperor's emphasis on foreign trade, these ideas are all wet.

Compared with the Hongwu era, the maritime ban-tribute system in Yongle period did not change, but paid more attention to the political level than the economic level, and Yongle Emperor almost completely ignored the profits brought by the tribute trade. From the words of Emperor Yongle, we can conclude that his ultimate ideal is to standardize the "four foreigners" with Confucian etiquette order, establish an international political order in East Asia centered on the Ming Dynasty, and maintain it forever.

The emperor is in the middle, caressing and controlling ten thousand squares, and it is as big as heaven and earth, without exception. Those who come from far away, take care of them and give them whatever they want. (Records of Emperor Taizong, Xinhai in October of the first year of Yongle)

It can be seen that Emperor Yongle always dreamed of "the prosperous time of paying tribute to the four foreigners". In order to reward tribute, even if the tribute envoy slightly violates the ban, it will not be investigated. For Yongle emperor, trade is secondary, and the form of "tribute" itself is the most important.

The completion of the order of Chinese and foreigners in Daming

The framework of the Chinese-foreign order centered on the Ming Dynasty established since the Hongwu period was finally completed through the perfection of Yongle Emperor. In the order of Hua Yi, with Yongle Emperor as the center, China and Yi Di occupy their respective positions. /kloc-The political pattern in East Asia in the early 5th century is just like the "Five Clothes Map".

In the composition of the "Five-service Map", the center is the area ruled by the Emperor and his subordinate (the inner minister), the outer periphery is the territory of the princes, and the outermost is the wild land where Yidi lives. Theoretically, the neighboring countries and ethnic groups in Yongle period were brought into the concentric circular Chinese-English order around Yongle Emperor.

In the "five-service map", the part closest to the central government is the ethnic groups in the country that have been incorporated into the detention center and the chieftain system. The "Manchuria", "Hami" and "Southwest China" where they lived were originally "barbarians". When these areas become Chinese territory, they will live here as Chinese people.

As Chinese people, the Ming Dynasty treated them as "internal ministers". Their leader change or succession to the throne must be recognized by the Ming Dynasty. Once there is a war in the Ming Dynasty, they are obliged to send troops to help. In addition, it is necessary to pay tribute regularly to fulfill the "tribute trade". In a word, they are equivalent to internal ministers, but they are not internal ministers, just in the position between internal ministers and foreign ministers (conferring countries).

In the "Five-service Map", the outer side of them is a "foreign minister" who accepted the conferment of the Ming Dynasty, and a "conferring country" that formed a relationship between monarch and minister with Emperor China. The conferring state has the obligation to pay tribute to Emperor China, and specially set the "tribute period" and "tribute road" for the tribute.

Regarding the tribute period, specifically, for example, it is stipulated that Japan pays tribute once every ten years, Ryukyu pays tribute once every two years, and Southeast Asian countries pay tribute once every three years. The conferring country may not be able to strictly observe the tribute period, but it must regularly pay tribute to Beijing in accordance with the prescribed tribute road.

In the first year of Yongle (1403), the Ming Dynasty restored the shipping departments of Ningbo, Quanzhou and Guangzhou as the windows to receive the envoys of tributary countries. Overseas countries go through the landing formalities at the city shipping department of one of the ports, and then enter Beijing according to the prescribed tribute road. For example, it is stipulated that Japanese envoys should go through the landing formalities at Ningbo Shipping Department, while Ryukyu envoys are under the responsibility of Quanzhou Shipping Department (later changed to Fuzhou Shipping Department), and tributes from Southeast Asian and South China Sea countries are under the management of Guangzhou Shipping Department. As a non-governmental trade administrative organ, the Municipal Shipping Department changed its functions in the operation of the maritime ban-tribute system in the Ming Dynasty.

Take the demand for China materials as a bargaining chip.

The most fundamental difference is the maritime ban policy implemented by the Ming Dynasty.

The collapse of the world empire in the Tang Dynasty led to the instantaneous collapse of the international political order in East Asia, but the neighboring countries still maintained economic and trade ties. The socio-economic development in Song and Yuan Dynasties and the economic growth of neighboring countries complemented each other, forming a very close trade circle in East Asia. Although the economy and trade in the Yuan Dynasty were under the control of the state, the overseas trade of the people showed an unprecedented grand occasion.

However, in the absence of an orderly political framework between countries, the development of regional economy was in chaos in East Asian waters at the end of Yuan Dynasty. At the end of Yuan Dynasty, Japanese pirates, pirates and so on accompanied the commercialization development of East Asian countries, which raged from the Korean Peninsula to the coast of China. Coupled with the internal political chaos in East Asian countries, their activities are even more rampant. Both the Yuan Dynasty and neighboring countries no longer have enough power to destroy them.

Therefore, at the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, it was faced with two major issues, namely, rebuilding the international political order in East Asia that collapsed after the Tang Dynasty and restoring the economic order in the international trade market in East Asia.

With its powerful national strength, the Ming Dynasty established a perfect political and economic system and successfully solved these two major issues. This is the maritime ban-tribute system established and perfected from Hongwu period to Yongle period.

The characteristic of this system is to take the demand of neighboring countries for China's materials as a bargaining chip, and spread the Chinese-foreign order centered on the Ming Dynasty throughout East Asia. If neighboring countries want to do business with China, they must be in the framework of the Chinese-foreign order formulated by the Ming Dynasty and be regulated by it. In the Ming Dynasty, people's overseas communication was forbidden, but it was limited to the tribute trade between countries, aiming at establishing an international political and economic order with neighboring countries. And it is the emerging Ming dynasty that has this strength.

Beyond Kublai Khan —— Establishment of China's "World System"

14, 15 The economic development of the East Asian world reached a height unmatched by the Tang Dynasty. In this process, the Ming Dynasty, relying on the mode of political power to control economic development, implemented a comprehensive maritime ban, and at the same time established a mandatory international political ruling order. As mentioned many times before, the emergence of autocratic countries in the Ming Dynasty and the dependence of East Asian countries on China's economy, which were willing to submit to the rule of the Ming Dynasty, were the background for the establishment of the international order in East Asia.

Part of "Sea War Map of Japanese and Mongolian Expeditionary Forces"

Needless to say, the active diplomacy of Emperor Yongle promoted the further improvement of the international order in East Asia. He wants to bring all the neighboring countries into the system. Fifteen countries awarded "Kanhe" in the Ming Dynasty, indicating that there are still many countries that need to obey the rule of the Ming Dynasty in order to seek trade benefits. Of course, this includes Japan. Regardless of ashikaga yoshimitsu's initial thoughts, Sino-Japanese relations in the Ming Dynasty really developed through "comparable trade".

During the Yongle period, an efficient and organic system of political and economic integration centered on the Ming Dynasty was established in the East Asian world. In this system, the relationship between China and Yidi was orderly, and the stability of the order of China and Yidi was maintained by the profit of tribute trade. It is by virtue of China's absolute political and economic strength that an open ruling world is conceived. From this, we can also call the East Asian international order in Yongle period the Chinese "world system".

Whether Yongle Emperor was satisfied with the new world order he established is unknown to us. But at least it is certain that Japan's acceptance of the Ming Dynasty as a foreign minister is absolutely icing on the cake for the "Yongle Shengshi".

For Emperor Yongle, it was of great significance that he nationalized Japan without using force at all, and realized Kublai Khan's extravagant hope that could not be fulfilled. At that time, Emperor Yongle must be very proud that he had surpassed Kublai Khan. The completion of the Chinese-foreign order in Ming Dynasty not only entrusted the self-confidence and reserve of Yongle Emperor, but also was the result of his painstaking management.