During the Enlightenment, France began to resist the aristocratic zoos. At that time, Encyclopédie denounced, "When the poor don't even have bread, the aristocratic zoos should be destroyed; When people die of hunger everywhere, it is a shame to spend huge sums of money to feed wild animals. " Accordingly, this book also condemns the hunting activities of the noble class (destroying the fruits of farmers' labor), interference in academic research, support for the abuse of agricultural progress and energy waste, and prejudice against worldly treasures. The real natural history collection is regarded as the only basis for academic research. Under the influence of this trend of thought, the noble zoo died in the Great Revolution, and a new animal world oriented to the whole nation rather than a few dignitaries entered the historical stage with the efforts of many naturalists in Jardindes Plantes (formerly Jardindu Roi).
In France, the king and court in the18th century paid little attention to the Versailles Zoo, which was the root of the above changes. After the death of Louis XIV, the Regent sold and gave away some animals, which was undoubtedly to remove an explicit symbol of absolutism and call for the division of power. Louis XV, who returned to Versailles in 1722, also paid little attention to the zoo and never seemed to visit the park. His successor was not much more enthusiastic than him. On a map drawn in 178 1 year, which indicated the places and routes for royal walks, the zoo did not appear at all.
This is not because Louis XV lacked interest in exotic animals. Whenever he comes to the zoo or passes through the capital, he will send someone to take the animals to his residence. What he hates is the drama and symbolism of the public display mode. The kings of his time didn't like the elaborate ceremonies and red tape that the sun king loved; In fact, they still maintain these practices, but in private, they also hide in small mansions or training places. In the period of Louis XVI, the imperial court actually operated normally only on Sundays or festivals. At other times, rulers like to stay in Paris or their own castles. At this time, Trianon Zoo became a paradise for kings-a leisure place specially prepared by Louis XV and later Marie Antoinette for the inner circle. All kinds of native animals (Dutch cows, rare female birds and pigeons) in the park created an idealized rural atmosphere. A similar change in concept is also reflected in the symbolic significance of Versailles Park in this period. Its overall appearance has not changed much, but it has abandoned geometric rigor; The undergrowth turned into a dense forest. It is another innovation of Marie Antoinette in rural Tria, and it is completely another type of garden.
These changes explain the lack of investment, budget cuts and endless delays in the innovation plan of Versailles Zoo. Its buildings are dilapidated, and once the water supply system goes wrong, the courtyard will become a swamp. However, nobles who cannot enter the private gardens of princes (let alone the private gardens of monarchs) will still visit here. While Louis XV and Lady Pompadour were enjoying themselves in Trianon, Queen Mary visited the zoo several times. Finally, a series of innovations were implemented in 1750, 1774, 1782 and 179 1 year, which is a balance: although the imperial court is not interested in this zoo, a civilized country needs it. Anyway, there are still countless animals here, and the door is open to new animals. With the arrival of a rhinoceros with two horns and an elephant around 1770 and 1775 respectively, this place, which is obviously not as beautiful as the previous century, has once again aroused public interest-a hundred years later, the public's knowledge level is not what it used to be. After the French royal family fled to Paris in the fire of the Great Revolution, the Versailles Zoo was rebuilt in 179 1 for economic reasons, and a large number of birds disappeared. 1August 792 10 Soon after, the local jacobins came here, abolished this autocratic symbol and gave monkeys, deer and birds to fur traders. They plan to build a symbolic stallion farm to replace the useless beasts in the zoo with this place that is beneficial to agriculture, transportation and the army. The representative of Versailles decided to give the last batch of animals to Bernardinde Saint-Pierre, the representative of Paris Botanical Garden, in the hope of making them into stuffed specimens and exhibiting them in the natural history exhibition hall, thus playing the role of "public education". Bernardin de Saint-Pierre didn't fully agree. He wrote a letter to the French National Convention, indicating the "necessity of adding a zoo in the National Paris Botanical Garden". This 1790 motion was supported by the scientific community; As the venue was ready, it finally became a reality.
Bernardin de Saint-Pierre pointed out that the Paris Botanical Garden only represents the first two natural kingdoms, and there are no live animals at all, while comparative anatomy is an imperfect subject, so it is very important to observe the behavior of live animals. Others bluntly advocate the introduction, domestication and adaptation of exotic animals. There is also a debate about the futility of the National Zoo as art materials and educational tools, although these are only secondary issues. Scholars who don't pay attention to appearance and luxury like the aristocratic class despise Versailles Zoo, thinking that it is expensive and unnecessary, and it is a symbol of a grandiose authoritarian regime that praises itself but crushes its subjects. They proposed to set up an institution that abandons all luxury and ostentation, and this place is dedicated to academic research, which will bring technological and economic advantages to the country. Changing its location in Paris is to symbolize this role change. Changing the nature of animals will make the new institution draw a clear line with the nature of monarchies and their guardians. To this end, the number of fierce animals should be reduced, because the beast of prey is the embodiment of destructive violence, and it will support the law of the jungle and make a name for tyranny. Docile animals have turned to be favored, and they are placed under the banner of public utilities, which essentially means all citizens who work hard.
In fact, the process of trial and execution of Louis XVI, internal contradictions and fear of war have delayed all decisions. The first relevant action was taken by the Paris police. In 1793, they ordered all the animals exhibited on the public roads to be transferred to the Paris Botanical Garden, and the owners of the animals would be compensated. Perhaps they want to implement a law promulgated by 1790: the municipal authorities "have the responsibility to prevent or remedy unfortunate events that may be caused by freed mental patients or crazy harmful beasts,"; Or maybe they realized the scholar's long-cherished wish mentioned above. As a result, scholars are divided on this issue, because there are no necessary facilities, keepers and funds for accommodating animals, and these wild animals are more suitable for spectacular exhibitions than detailed research. However, the decision to concentrate on raising animals prevailed. In 1794, they were put into shacks, and some amusement park stall owners were hired as keepers. Considering the insecurity of this situation, the Committeeof Public Safety has equipped the Botanical Garden with a temporary shelter with iron bars and cages brought from Versailles, and specially allocated funds for raising animals, which is equivalent to officially recognizing the zoo.
We can explain this decision in the context of the overall reform of academic institutions. In 1792 and 1793, all universities, societies and medical colleges were banned because they were regarded as symbols of intellectual autocracy. But the Paris Botanical Garden, which is open to the public and has been devoted to popular science and scientific experiments, has been preserved. 1793 June, it was transformed into a national museum of natural history. The establishment of the museum is only a part of the construction tide, and many other great buildings, including the Louvre, have come out one after another, and all of them have gone through a process of destruction, occupation, reconstruction and rectification.
At first, the lack of funds forced the museum to set up its temporary facilities in stables, an old greenhouse and surrounding miscellaneous forests. However, the overcrowded and cramped space, the worse conditions than amusement parks and zoos, and the lack of food under the national material shortage have led to the high mortality rate and sharp fluctuations in the number of animals. 1794 Most of the animals moved in died the following year, and the museum almost reorganized its collection from scratch.
Therefore, asking for animals from the noble zoo has become a supplement to the general acquisition methods (travel harvest, purchase, gift, scientific research). Survivors of Versailles Zoo-a lion, a prairie zebra and a nightingale elk (now extinct) and about 30 animals from the Raincy mansion of the Duke of Orleans arrived first in 1794. 1798, a group of birds and mammals (including a famous elephant) moved in, which were seized by the French army from the Dutch governor who fled to England. In the same year, the military victory enabled the French to harvest bears in Bern and a variety of animals in the Italian zoo. These predatory practices are consistent with France's systematic collection policy that looks like robbery to other European countries. It was under the guidance of this policy that the National Association sent representatives, including two museum professors, to the army of the Rhine River in 1794, to collect works of art, books and scientific supplies. After the invasion of the Austrian Netherlands and the Dutch Federation in 1795, countless animals, plants, agricultural tools and specimens from the Brussels Academy and the Dutch Governor also fell into the hands of the French. The same policy was used in Italy.1On July 27th, 798, the French victory parade marched into Paris with a large number of Italian artworks and exotic animals. After the hard period of the Great Revolution, many construction projects were completed in about 40 years, and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Fré dé ric Ju Weiye contributed greatly: the former was in charge of the zoo in the Paris Botanical Garden during1802-41year, while the latter was in charge of the zoo in the Paris Botanical Garden during1year. These projects include1801-05 monkey house and bird house, 1805 bear garden,1802-12 large herbivore (elephant, giraffe) rotunda,1. A garden is built around the earliest buildings. According to the plan, these old buildings will accommodate tame animals from the 18 10 era. In order to construct the rugged terrain, the land was divided into blocks. Trees are either planted independently or planted in miscellaneous forests, lawns and flower beds. The stalls with ponds occupy one side of the world; The country house made of wood and stone has a thatched roof. The circuitous road system makes it possible to travel around in all directions. Radiant design was abandoned and gardens were combined in a new way, which declared a break with baroque tradition. This zoo is no longer an independent unity surrounded by gardens, but scattered in every corner of the whole area. This kind of planning has multiplied the observation points and scattered them everywhere along the pedestrian route; At least for docile animals, it also creates a sense of natural environment.
The design inspiration of this "Swiss Valley" (Switzerland was regarded as one of the strangest European countries at that time) came directly from the landscape garden that appeared in England in the first half of the18th century, and the concept of this garden was based on a new view of nature. Unlike17th century, nature is no longer regarded as something created by God following the simplest procedure. On the contrary, people think that it is born of an abundant and changeable energy, which is best expressed in the diversity of organic life (so it needs variety, wildness and disorder). /kloc-In the second half of the 8th century, this idea was supported by a popular concept represented by the philosopher Jean-Jean-Jacques Rousseau: nature is a quiet paradise far away from decadent cities. Therefore, a beautiful garden should not be a place to suppress nature, but a place to return to its original appearance.
This irregular garden is based on a method of division and collage. It comes from the combination of forms, and all forms are not only the products of human brain, but also the products of nature itself. Human beings regard them as the most distinctive or beautiful forms, so they merge them in a specific place in pursuit of diversity, asymmetry and faltering: mountains and valleys, lakes and streams, forests, glades, shrubs and grasslands, shadows and light, and so on. All the elements are based on a well-planned panoramic structure, which is visually connected with the outside world (the fence is often replaced by ditches), and the ingenious combination makes the traces of human interference hidden. As we all know, the design of this kind of garden is deeply influenced by the painting art of 17 and 18 centuries, especially its landscape expression, perspective mode and light and shadow treatment. "One must be like a poet and a painter when conceiving a landscape, and use both eyes and brain." 1777, the landscape garden theorist R.Girardin wrote.
This style was popular all over Europe in the second half of the18th century. Lord Heather set an example in Bellevue Castle in Kassel in 1758. Later, new fashions spread all over the German territory and the Italian peninsula, such as the Roman villa, which adapted to the trend and transformed its garden. The first French case was/kloc-0, which appeared in Norvell and Lanxi, Ermont in the 1960s. However, it was not until the daughters of Louis XV rebuilt the Chateaude Bellevue in 178 1 year, and Queen Marie Antoinette began to reorganize the countryside of Trieria in 1783, that this movement gained real impetus. The aristocratic class followed their example and developed a French version of landscape gardens: villages or farms, rest homes, winding paths, pavilions, bridges and islands, rockery gardens, caves and relics dotted with English-style beauty, all of which reflected their persistent love for ingenious man-made things.
Gardens with animals are usually larger, and domesticated native animals (ducks, pheasants, cows) are more inclined to be semi-freely stocked in farms, dairy farms, birdhouses and islands, in order to add a touch of life to the whole scene. This arrangement was made in Gilardin (1777), Horace Walpole (1785) and C. C. Herschfeld (C. C. Hirschfield,1779-1785). Experts also suggest that animals should be housed in various rural buildings that have been transformed according to the surrounding environment.
The acceptance of the new style by the zoo in the Paris Museum is undoubtedly supported by political significance. The creators and advocates of this landscape garden associate it with the implicit challenge to the authoritarian regime, so it is regarded as a symbol of freedom. For example, the author of the book Guided Jardins de Franconville-la-Garenne (1784) asserts that one day, "it will be difficult for people to understand why a person who was born free and hated slavery was willing to keep himself at home, just like putting a criminal in prison." Paris Botanical Garden is the first example of the combination of landscape gardens and large exotic zoos ―― although the buildings where monkeys and dangerous animals are imprisoned are not part of the whole landscape, this is still true, because these animals represent another more scientific view of nature. We will return to this question later. The whole of Europe followed the model of Paris Botanical Garden, which can be partly attributed to the prestige of France at that time. Many French ideas have been absorbed more or less directly, even by hostile countries, even after the defeat of France. The spread of this influence is strengthening and accelerating, and new zoos appear all over Europe. Travel guides published in Paris and London, as well as lithographs and (later) photographs as illustrations or illustrations, promoted this change. The railway, which was born in the middle of19th century, facilitated the visit to the frontier areas, thus promoting the popularization of innovation. For example, in 1858, a Paris delegation visited London, Brussels, Antwerp and Amsterdam before building a zoo in Bois du Boulogne. From 1863 to 1900, the supervision department of London Zoo went to the European continent every year to learn from the experience of its peers. Fashion patterns are still changing. When Paris Botanical Garden gradually became outdated, zoos in London and Antwerp began to be regarded as advanced models of animal quantity and equipment quality. 1870 years later, the zoo in Berlin also emerged as a leader that can keep pace with these great institutions.
But despite these changes, the two features of the Paris Botanical Garden have always influenced the whole of Europe. Its scenery was quickly adopted by Ferdinand VII's Madrid (1808-1833): there was an artificial mountain for stocking animals, a herbivore pen and a cat house in the edge area of the Lichi. Paris Botanical Garden's idea of dispersing exotic animals and buildings in every corner of English gardens was also realized in 1822 and 1828 respectively in Peacock Island, which belongs to the king of Prussia, and Regent's Park in London. This kind of planning became quite common in the19th century, which was accompanied by a reversal of the relationship in the zoo: the zoo began to be regarded as a whole rather than a component in the established park; For example, in Bristol, Rotterdam and Hanover, the corral is decorated with herbs and trees rather than herbs.
This trend is the root of the word "zoo gardens". When the new zoo was built in Regent's Park in London, the word first appeared in England, but it really spread to the European continent in the second half of the19th century. In England in the19th century, some people simplified it to "zoo", but the word didn't become popular until the early 20th century ―― in France, it appeared in the 193 1 year colonial exhibition; "Zoo" emphasizes the content of space (animals) rather than the space itself, which undoubtedly expresses the difference between this park and other parks more clearly.
Selfless contribution to the country is another important feature of Paris Botanical Garden, which is reflected in its purpose and closeness to the people. In this era of rising nationalist complex and democratic voice, this spiritual connotation has aroused the passion of the European people. As a result, a wave of animal garden construction has sprung up all over Europe in the19th century. At this point, the concept of modern zoo began to sprout.