Chapter VII Organisms have the same basic structure.

1 and 1665, Hooke in England first developed an optical microscope and found that cork flakes are composed of many cells, called "cells". Most living things are made up of cells. Viruses have no cell structure and are much smaller than cells. Viruses must live in other biological cells. Human influenza, SARS, AIDS and other diseases are all caused by virus infection. Cell is the basic unit of organism structure and function.

2. The basic structure of cells includes cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus.

① Cell membrane can protect the internal structure of cells and control the entry and exit of substances inside and outside cells.

② Cytoplasm is a transparent liquid with fluidity, which is conducive to the exchange of materials between cells and between cells and the external environment, and is an important place for life activities.

③ There are biological genetic materials on the chromosomes of the nucleus, mainly a chemical substance called deoxyribonucleic acid, that is, DNA. Cloned sheep are most like sheep that provide nuclei.

④ Plant cells have more cell walls, vacuoles and chloroplasts than animal cells.

A, the cell wall in the plant cell structure, located in the outer layer of the plant cell, is tough, protects the internal structure of the cell and maintains the cell morphology.

B there are mitochondria related to cell respiration, chloroplasts related to plant photosynthesis, and vacuoles filled with cell sap (the juice from cut fruits is usually cell sap).

C, about 95% of the energy required for cell life activities comes from mitochondria, which is called the power plant for energy supply in cells.

3. Cell growth: Biological growth is closely related to cell division and differentiation. On the one hand, cells increase the number of cells through division; On the other hand, cells increase in volume through growth. If you have 10 bacteria in your hand, the bacteria multiply every 20 minutes, and the bacteria multiply 72 times a day and night, and the total number of bacteria reaches 10×272.

4. Cell differentiation: All cells of multicellular organisms are produced by fertilized eggs. In the process of cell division, a few cells continue to maintain their original shape and have the ability to divide, while most cells lose the ability to divide. They also perform different physiological functions through growth morphology and structure. We call this cell change cell differentiation. Human totipotent stem cells can differentiate into various human cells, while some stem cells can only differentiate into a certain type of cells. )

5. Normal cells divide, the nucleus and cytoplasm split into two parts, and the chromosomes after division are the same, which ensures the continuity and stability of genetic material in the previous generation. If normal dividing cells are out of control, cells will divide excessively and become cancerous.

6. There are three kinds of slide specimens: loading, slicing and smearing. The package treated with iodine solution is easy to observe under the microscope.

Chapter 8 Organisms have similar structural levels.

1. Tissue: Cell groups with similar morphology and the same structure and function are called tissues.

Organ: Several different tissues constitute the structure that performs certain functions in an organism. These tissues are called organs.

System: In most animals and human bodies, some organs are further connected in order to complete one or several biological activities together to form a system.

2. The structural level of plant composition is: cells → tissues → organs → plants.

3. Plant organization mainly includes meristem, mechanical organization, basic organization, protection organization and transportation organization.

Example of organization name function

Meristem has the ability to divide and proliferate, such as root tips and buds.

Basic tissues can make and store organic nutrients, such as meat.

Protect tissues and control gas exchange between plants and the outside world, such as plant epidermis.

Transport organizations transport water, inorganic salts and organic nutrients, such as catheters and screens in veins.

Mechanical tissues have supporting functions, such as fibers in veins.

4. A complete green flowering plant includes six organs: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Among them, roots, stems and leaves are vegetative organs, while flowers, fruits and seeds are reproductive organs.

5. Plant tissue culture technology is also commonly known as plant cloning.

6. The structural level of animal tissues is: cells → tissues → organs → systems → animal bodies.

7. The main tissues of human body are epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue and nerve tissue.

Organization name and composition of functional departments

Epithelial tissue protects the outer surface of skin and the inner surface of organs and intestines.

Muscle tissue contracts and relaxes, which makes the body produce exercise skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle.

Connective tissue supports, nourishes, connects and protects blood, bone tissue, fat and tendons.

Stimulating nerve tissue can produce excitement and conduct the excitement of brain and spinal cord.

8. The eight systems of the human body: digestive system, respiratory system, exercise system, urinary system, reproductive system, nervous system and endocrine system, all of which are mainly regulated by the nervous system and endocrine system to complete various life activities.

9. From the appearance, the human body is divided into four parts: head, neck, trunk and limbs. The head and trunk of human body are surrounded by skin, muscle and bone respectively, forming cranial cavity and body cavity. Body cavity is divided into thoracic cavity and abdominal cavity by diaphragm. The chest has organs such as heart and lung, and the abdominal cavity has organs such as stomach, intestine and liver. Because there are no large nerves and blood vessels passing through the buttocks, the lateral upper part of the buttocks is usually chosen as the site of muscle injection.

10. Morphological structure and characteristics in life activities of single-celled organisms: (1) The body consists of only one cell. (2) can independently complete life activities such as nutrition, breathing, excretion, exercise and reproduction.

Common unicellular organisms: paramecium, amoeba, euglena, yeast, Chlamydomonas.

Paramecium 1) shape: like an inverted grass sole.

2) Structure: surface membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus, food vacuole and contraction vacuole.

3) Life activities: movement: cilia swing

Nutrition: Food bacteria and unicellular algae are digested and absorbed in food vacuoles.

Excretion: contraction of vacuole, supramembranous respiration: supramembranous reproduction: cell division.

Why does paramecium have the function of purifying sewage? A: Consume organic matter in water and swallow bacteria.

① Compared with plant cells, paramecium has no chloroplast and vacuole, and there is no chloroplast in the cell, so it can't make organic matter by itself. It is easy to cultivate and reproduce with amoeba, and it is a good material for studying the basic theory of biological science.

② Euglena can monitor environmental pollution.

③ Yeast can be used for producing bread, steamed bread and wine by fermentation, and can also be used for pharmacy.

④ Plasmodium is parasitic in human blood, which makes people suffer from malaria. Some single-celled organisms will pollute the environment and endanger fisheries.

Chapter 9 creatures on the ground

1、

high

Isoseed plants:

Plants that reproduce offspring from seeds; Angiosperms;

Seeds covered with skins, such as peaches, wheat, peanuts and vegetables, are the tallest and most abundant plants in the plant kingdom.

..... Daughter plants:

Seeds without peel, such as Pinus massoniana, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, Platycladus orientalis, Cedar, Cycas, Ginkgo biloba, etc. It is of great value in timber afforestation, medicine, food and appreciation.

low

Isospore plants:

A fern that reproduces offspring with spores.

[Differentiated by roots, stems and leaves] such as Osmunda japonica, Pteris, Selaginella, Manjianghong, etc.

[late]

Bryophyte plants

[False roots, stem and leaf differentiation] such as gourd, golden moss, and glutinous rice.

seaweed

[Rootless] Such as kelp, laver, spirogyra, etc.

[Appear early]

2. Some bryophytes can monitor the degree of air pollution. Function of indicating soil properties.

3. Energy coal was formed by ancient pteridophytes buried in the stratum for a long time.

4. Animals on the ground mainly include mammals and reptiles, among which the tallest animal is mammals [such as monkeys, apes, platypus, kangaroos, dolphins, bats, rabbits, etc. ], which is mainly characterized by long hair on the body surface, constant temperature, viviparous and lactation. Reptiles include lizards, geckos, snakes, turtles, soft-shelled turtles and crocodiles. They belong to warm-blooded animals, and most of them have hibernation habits.

The rabbit's body is divided into five parts: head, neck, trunk, limbs and tail. Rabbits have short forelimbs and powerful hind limbs, which are suitable for jumping. The whole body jacket has heat preservation function; Diaphragm is a unique structure of mammals. The movement of the diaphragm makes the chest bigger and smaller, which is beneficial to the breathing of the lungs. The digestive tube is very long, and the developed cecum is beneficial to the digestion of plant fiber.

6. A flower usually consists of pedicel, receptacle, calyx, corolla, stamen and pistil. Stamens and pistils are collectively called stamens. Stamens are composed of anthers and filaments, while pistils are composed of stigma, style and ovary containing ovules.

Chapter 10 aquatic organisms

1. Common animal species in water include fish (such as crucian carp), coelenterate (such as coral jellyfish), arthropod (shrimp, crab, spider and centipede), mollusk (such as mussel, snail and squid) and amphibian (such as frog). Among them, arthropods are the most widely distributed.

2. There is a lateral line on each side of crucian carp. It is a special sensory organ, which is connected with nerves and has the function of sensing the direction, speed and orientation of water flow. The dark color on the back gradually changes to the white color on the abdomen, which is beneficial to avoid enemy injuries. The moving organ of crucian carp is fin, which generates forward power by swinging tail fin and trunk left and right when swimming; The pectoral fin and ventral fin have the function of balancing the body; The respiratory organ of crucian carp is gill, and the body of crucian carp can be divided into three parts: head, trunk and tail. The back edge of gill cover used to be the head, the trunk in the middle and the tail behind the anus. The body is spindle-shaped and covered with scales, which can reduce the resistance of water when swimming. The swim bladder in fish can adjust the buoyancy of fish in water and make the fish stay in different water layers.

3. Four major fishes: herring, grass carp, bighead carp and silver carp. By mixing in the pond, we can make full use of the three-dimensional space of the water area and various natural bait to obtain more nutrients, thus achieving the goal of high yield.

4. Mussels breathe through gills and adapt to the structural characteristics of life in water through the movement of axe feet. The shell is formed by the secretion of the mantle. When the mantle of mussel is stimulated by sand or foreign matter, it will secrete a lot of nacre to wrap the foreign matter layer by layer, and gradually form a dazzling pearl. .

5. Algae are unicellular and multicellular. Algae plants have no roots, stems and leaves, and rely on chlorophyll in the body to carry out photosynthesis, produce organic matter, release oxygen and provide food for fish and plankton. The specific functions are: ① providing oxygen; (2) extracting industrial raw materials; 3 eating; ④ Purify sewage.

Spirogyra is composed of many long cylindrical cells with the same structure.

Chapter 1 1 Life in the air

1. Birds need to adapt to the life of flying in the air with a streamlined body shape. Their forelimbs have evolved into wings, and their bones are light, strong and muscular.

2. Pigeons are streamlined to reduce flight resistance; The forelimbs evolved into wide wings, which is beneficial to flying; Feathers mainly include normal feathers and down. Normal feathers are suitable for flying at the ends of wings and tails, and down has the function of heat preservation. The bones are light and strong, there is air in the bone cavity to reduce weight, and the developed pectoral muscles affect the wings to fly; Breathe with the lungs; Airbags have the functions of assisting breathing, reducing the specific gravity of the body, reducing the friction between internal organs and radiating excess heat in the body. The small intestine is very long, which is good for digesting food. Without the large intestine, you can't store feces, you can't lose weight, and it is suitable for flying. The heart has four chambers, and the blood has a strong oxygen transmission ability.

3. The most striking feature of insects: the body is divided into three parts: head, chest and abdomen, with three pairs of feet and two pairs of wings, and it is good at jumping and flying. There are many kinds of mouthparts of insects, such as locust chewing mouthparts, bee chewing mouthparts, butterfly siphon mouthparts, mosquito sucking mouthparts, and fly licking mouthparts.

4. The grasshopper's body is covered with tough exoskeleton, which can support the body, protect various organs in the body, prevent water evaporation in the body, and better adapt to land life, but it can't grow with the growth of the body, so it has molting phenomenon; The head has 1 antenna [with tactile and olfactory functions], 1 compound eye [with visual organs] and 3 monocular eyes [with light sensitivity], and the chest has 3 pairs of jointed feet and 2 pairs of wings [the front and rear feet are suitable for walking, the hind feet are developed, they are suitable for jumping, and the rear wings are thin, which are suitable for flying]; Locusts breathe through valves.

5. Insects have both advantages and disadvantages: advantages, such as bees can make honey, silkworms can spin silk, bees and butterflies can pollinate, ground beetles can be used as medicine, and protein can be obtained from insects. Harmful insects such as locusts, borers, aphids and longicorn beetles are agricultural pests. Mosquitoes, flies, lice and fleas not only suck the blood of people and animals, but also spread diseases. Scientists put forward that "pest control" is a good method to control agricultural pests, which is better than chemical methods and will not kill beneficial insects. Therefore, we should protect, develop and utilize beneficial insects to control harmful insects.

6. The author of Entomology is French biologist Fabers.

Chapter 12 Biology in Soil

1. When observing small animals in the soil, record the number and behavior characteristics of various small animals and find out their similarities and differences. If we want to identify their species, we need to have the data of the small animal retrieval classification table as the basis.

2. An earthworm has more than 100 nodes. Except for the anterior and posterior segments, all the other segments have bristles, and there are many ganglia on the ventral nerve cord, which are sensitive and accurate to stimulation. Earthworms rely on muscle contraction and bristles to help them move. Earthworms have no special respiratory organs and rely on wet body surfaces for gas exchange.

3. Microorganisms in soil mainly include bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Among them, bacteria are the most abundant, the most widely distributed and tiny, which are the primitive types of organisms and can only be observed by high-power microscope or electron microscope. It has three forms: spherical, rod-shaped and spiral. Bacteria generally have no chloroplasts, and most bacteria can only survive by using ready-made organic matter and decomposing it into simple inorganic matter.

4. Actinomycete is a branched filament. The hyphae of actinomycetes can be divided into vegetative hyphae, aerial hyphae and sporotrichum. About 85% of the antibiotics found now come from actinomycetes.

Actinomycetes and fungi have different shapes. Their cells do not contain chloroplasts, and their individuals are composed of hyphae. Different parts of hyphae have different functions, such as upright hyphae can support individuals and nutritious hyphae can absorb nutrients. As for mold, we studied the culture and observation methods of Penicillium and Rhizopus stolonifera.

6. Penicillin is an antibiotic drug, which was discovered by British bacteriologist Fleming.

7. Cordyceps sinensis is a fungus. Most fungi are multicellular individuals. Cells do not contain chlorophyll, so they cannot make organic matter through photosynthesis. They can only live saprophytic or parasitic lives and reproduce by spores. For example, yeast, mold and mushrooms are common fungi.

13 Chapter Naming and Classification of Organisms

1. Biological names that people are used to, usually called common names. /kloc-in the 8th century, the Swedish botanist Linnaeus proposed a biological nomenclature-binomial nomenclature; The binomial method makes each species have only one scientific name, called Xue Ming, so as to ensure that the names of species will not be confused. It is a scientific and internationally accepted method of biological nomenclature. The sentence consists of two parts, italicized. The first part is the generic name, the first letter is capitalized, and the second part is the species name, which indicates the main characteristics and origin of the organism, and all are lowercase.

2. According to the characteristics and similarities of more than 2 million known species, organisms are divided into different levels of taxonomic units, mainly including 7 classes, in descending order: boundary, phyla, class, order, family, genus and species. The kingdom is the largest taxonomic unit. American scientist Whitaker divides organisms into five kingdoms, namely, the animal kingdom, the plant kingdom, the fungus kingdom and the protozoa kingdom. Species is the most basic taxonomic unit.

Scientists divide animals into vertebrates and invertebrates according to the existence of spine. Vertebrates include fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Invertebrates include coelenterates, annelids, mollusks and arthropods. According to the different characteristics of living habits and morphological structure, plants can be divided into algae, bryophytes, ferns and seed plants.

4. The common tool for identifying biological species is the biological retrieval table (which divides organisms into different categories, and distinguishes them according to one of the important characteristics at each classification stage. The determination of each feature will narrow the range of species to which it may belong. There are many kinds of biological key tables, and the second type key table is used in textbooks.

5. Up to now, more than 1000 nature reserves of various types have been established in China, such as Wolong and Wang Lang nature reserves in Sichuan (for the protection of giant pandas, golden monkeys and other animals), Huaping nature reserve in Guangxi (for the protection of precious plants, silver cedar), Hoh Xil nature reserve (for the protection of Tibetan antelopes) and Changbai Mountain nature reserve (for the protection of ecosystems).

6. China acceded to the International Convention on the Protection of Biological Diversity in 1992, and successively promulgated the Forest Law of People's Republic of China (PRC), the Wildlife Protection Law of People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Outline of Nature Protection in China. According to the legal documents, 8 species of animals and 8 species of plants are protected at the national level.

7. The significance of microorganisms in soil to nature mainly lies in that they participate in the material cycle as decomposers, and humans use microorganisms to make food, medicine and so on. And microorganisms can also cause diseases of animals and plants.