High School Biology Essentials I Knowledge Points Summary

(I) Approaching the Cell

I. Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells (Diversity)

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Cells Smaller (1-10 um) Larger (10--100 um)

Nucleus No formed nucleus, nuclear material is concentrated in the nuclear region. No nuclear membrane, no nucleolus. dna is not bound to proteins Has a well-formed true nucleus. There is a nuclear membrane and a nucleolus. DNA does not bind to proteins to form chromosomes

Cytoplasm No organelles except ribosomes There are various organelles

Cell wall There is. But the composition is different from eukaryotic, mainly peptidoglycan Plant cells, fungal cells have, animal cells do not

Representative Actinomycetes, Bacteria, Cyanobacteria, Mycoplasma Fungi, Plants, Animals

Two, Hierarchical nature of the living system

Plant: nutrient, protection, mechanical, transmission Plant: root, stem, leaf

Cells Tissues Secretion Organs Flowers, fruits, species

Movement: epithelial, connective, muscle, nerve Action: heart, liver ......

Movement, circulation

Digestion, respiration Virus

Systems (movable) Individuals Single-cell populations Communities

Urinary, reproductive Multicellular

Nervous, endocrine

Abiotic factors No. I

Ecosystems Producers Biosphere

Biotic factors Consumers No. II

Decomposers

Third, the content of the cellular doctrine (unity)

○ Starting from the anatomy of the human body and observation: Vesalius, Bichot

○ Important invention of the microscope: Hooker, Levenhooker

○ Combination of theoretical thinking and scientific experimentation: Schleiden, Schwann

1. The cell is an organism; all plants and animals develop from cells and are made up of cells and cell products.

2. The cell is a relatively independent unit, both its own life, but also to the life of the whole with other cells *** with the composition.

3. New cells can arise from old cells.

Onward in revision: cells produce new cells by dividing.

Note: The Three Cornerstones of Modern Biology

1. 1838-1839 Cell theory 2. 1859 Darwin's theory of evolution 3. 1866 Mendel's genetics

Fourth, Conclusion

Besides viruses, the cell is the basic unit of structure and function of living organisms, and it is also the most basic of all the earth's living system on earth.

(ii) Molecules that make up the cell

Basic: C, H, O, N (90%)

Massive: C, H, O, N, P, S, (97%) K, Ca, Mg

Elements Trace: Fe, Mo, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, etc.

(20 kinds) Most basic: C, 48.4% of dry weight, of Biological macromolecules have carbon chains as their backbone

Substance Illustrates the unity and differences between the living and nonliving worlds.

Basic Water: main component; all life activities cannot be carried out without water

Inorganic matter Inorganic salts: important for maintaining life activities in organisms

Compounds Proteins: main bearers/embodiment of life activities (or traits)

Nucleic acids: carry genetic information

Organic matter Sugars: main energy source material

Lipids: the main energy storage material

I. Proteins (7-10% of fresh weight, 50% of dry weight)

Structure Elemental composition C, H, O, N, and in some cases P, S, Fe, Zn, Cu, B, Mn, I, etc.

Monomers Amino acids (about 20, essential 8, non-essential 12)

Chemical structure

Monomers Amino acids (about 20, essential 8, non-essential 12)

Chemical structure

Chemical structure Compounds made by dehydration condensation of several amino acid molecules, containing several peptide bonds, are called polypeptides.

(ii) Polypeptides have a chain-like structure called peptide chain. A protein molecule contains one or several peptide chains.

Higher structure Polypeptide chains form different spatial structures and are divided into two, three and four levels.

Structural features Because the amino acids that make up proteins are of different kinds, numbers, and orders, the spatial structure of the peptide chains varies greatly, so the structure of protein molecules is extremely diverse.

Function ○ The structural diversity of a protein determines its specificity/functional diversity.

1. important substances that make up cells and organisms: such as cell membranes, chromosomes, proteins in muscles;

2. some proteins have a catalytic effect: such as a variety of enzymes;

3. some proteins have a role in transportation: such as hemoglobin, carrier proteins;

4. some proteins have a regulatory role: such as insulin, growth hormone, etc.;

5. Some proteins have an immunizing effect: e.g. antibodies.

Remarks ○ The bond (-NH-CO-) that connects two amino acid molecules is called a peptide bond.

○各种蛋白在结构上所具有的***同特点（通式）：

1. Each amino acid contains at least one amino group and one carboxyl group together with a carbon atom;

2. Various amino acids are distinguished by the difference in the R group.

○ Denaturation (cooked egg) & salting & coagulation (tofu)

Calculations ○ When a peptide chain formed by N aa forms a cyclic protein, N water/peptide bonds are produced;

○ When N aa form a peptide chain, N-1 water/peptide bonds are produced;

○ When M peptide chains are formed by N aa, N-M water/peptide bonds are produced. water/peptide bond N-M;

○N aa form M peptide chain, the average molecular weight of each aa is α, then the molecular weight of the resulting protein

is N × α-(N-M) × 18;

II, nucleic acids

The genetic material of all living things, the carrier of genetic information and the controller of life activities.

Elemental composition C, H, O, N, P, etc.

Classification Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA double-stranded) Ribonucleic acid (RNA single-stranded)

Monomer

Composition Phosphate H3PO4

Penta-carbon sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Nitrogenous

Bases A, G, C, T A, G, C, U

Function Main genetic material that encodes, replicates genetic

information, and determines protein synthesis Transmits genetic information from DNA to

proteins.

Existence Mainly in the nucleus, with small amounts in the cytosol and chloroplasts. Methyl green Found mainly in the cytoplasm. Pyrrol Red

△ Each monomer has a carbon chain of several linked carbon atoms as its basic backbone, with many monomers linked to form a multimer.

Three, sugars and lipids

Element Category Existence Physiological function

Sugars C, H, O Monosaccharide Ribose C5H10O5 Main cytoplasm The components of ribonucleic acid;

Deoxyribose C4H10O5 Main nucleus Deoxyribonucleic acid components;

Six-carbon sugar: glucose

C6H12O6, fructose, etc Main cytoplasm An important energy substance (more than 70%) for living organisms to carry out their life activities;

Disaccharides

C12H22O11 Maltose, sucrose Plants

Lactose Animal

Polysaccharides Starch, cellulose Plants (constituent parts of the cell wall),

Important energy storing substances;

Glycogen (liver, muscle) Animals

Lipids C, H, O

Some also N, P Fats Animals and plants Storage of energy, maintenance of body temperature;

Lipids/phospholipids Brain, beans Important constituents of biofilms;

Sterols Cholesterol Animals Important constituent of animals;

Sex hormones Promotes development of sexual organs and secondary sexual characteristics;

Vitamin D Promote the absorption and utilization of calcium and phosphorus;

△ Any one of the compounds that make up an organism is not capable of accomplishing a certain kind of life activity on its own, but only organically organized in a certain way can it manifest the life phenomena of cells and organisms. The cell is the most basic structural form of these substances.

Four, identification experiments

Reagents Ingredients Experimental phenomena Common materials

Protein Bicarbonylurea A: 0.1g/mL NaOH Purple Soybean

Eggs

B: 0.01g/mL CuSO4

Fat Sudan Ⅲ Orange Peanut

Reduced sugar Banshee (heated) Brick red Precipitation Apple, pear, white radish

Starch Iodine I2 blue Potato

○ Sugars with reducing properties: glucose, maltose, fructose

V. Inorganic substances

Mode of existence Physiological effects

Water

Bound water 4.5%

Free water 95% Part of the water and other substances in the cell

Other substances bound. A component of cellular structure.

The vast majority of water exists in a

free form and can flow freely. 1. a good solvent in the cell;

2. participates in many biochemical reactions within the cell;

3. water is the liquid environment in which the cell lives;

4. the flow of water transports nutrients to the cell and transports wastes to the organs of excretion or directly to the excretory organs;

Inorganic salts Most of the water exists in an ionic state, such as K+,

Ca2 +, Mg2+, Cl--, PO2+, etc. 1. an important part of some complex compounds in the cell, such as Fe2+ is the main component of hemoglobin;

2. hold the life activities of the organism, the form and function of the cell;

3. to maintain the osmotic pressure of the cell and the balance of acid and base;

Sixth, summary

Chemical synthesis Organic combination Differentiation

chemical elements, chemical compounds, protoplasm, cells

○ protoplasm 1. refers to all the living material in the cell in general, but does not include all the material in the cell, such as the cell wall;

2. includes the cell membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus three parts; its main components are nucleic acids, proteins (and lipids);

3. animal cells can be regarded as a mass of protoplasm .

○细胞质： refers to all the protoplasm in the cell within the cell membrane and outside the nucleus.

○Protoplasmic layer : The cell membrane of a mature plant cell, the vesicle membrane, and the cytoplasm between the two membranes, a semi-permeable membrane.

Cell wall (plant-specific): cellulose + pectin, support and protection

Composition: lipids (the main phospholipids) 50%, proteins about 40%, sugars 2%-10%

Cell membrane

Role: separates the cell from the environment; control of the entry and exit of substances; intercellular exchange of information

The cell membrane is the membrane of the cell. p>

Eukaryotic Matrix: water, inorganic salts, lipids, sugars, amino acids, nucleotides and a variety of enzymes

Cells Cytoplasm is the main site of metabolism in living cells.

Division of labor: linear, inner, high, nuclear, lysosomal, mesenchymal, lobe, fluid,

Organelles

Coordination: synthesis and secretion of secretory proteins; biofilm system

Nuclear membrane: a double-layered membrane separating the nuclear material and the cytoplasm

Nuclear pores: to enable frequent exchange of material and information between the nucleus and the plasm

Nucleus Nucleolus: with the Nucleus: related to the synthesis of certain RNA and the formation of ribosomes

Chromatin: composed of DNA and proteins, DNA is the carrier of genetic information

I. Organelles Differential centrifugation: the United States of America Claude

Mitochondria Chloroplasts Golgi apparatus Endoplasmic reticulum Liquid vesicles Ribosomes Centrosomes

Distribution Plants and animals Animals, plants and animals Animals, plants and certain protozoa

These protozoa are the most abundant in the world. p>Some protozoa plants and animals plants and animals animals

Lower plants

Morphology ellipsoidal, rod-shaped flattened spherical or ellipsoidal sized vesicles, flattened sacs reticulated ellipsoidal granular vesicles

Structures double membrane, with a small amount of DNA single membrane forming vesicles and tubes with lumens No membrane structure

crests (TPase complexes), stroma, matrix stroma ( (TPase complex), matrix, stroma Matrix (lamellipodia), enzymes Outer connection to cell membrane, inner connection to nuclear membrane Vesicle membrane, cytosol Proteins, RNA, and enzymes Two perpendicular centrioles

Functions Primary site of aerobic respiration Site of photosynthesis Cellular secretion,

Cell wall Provides conditions for synthesis, transport Storage of substances, regulation of internal environment Site of protein synthesis Related to mitosis

Remarks In the nucleolus

Formation

△ Organelles are structural units in the cytoplasm that have a certain morphological structure and perform certain physiological functions,

Three, coordinated coordination Secretion of proteins Radioisotope tracing: Romania Parad

Organic matter, O2

Chloroplasts Mitochondria

Energy, CO2

Gene regulation Initial synthesis Processing Modification

Nucleus Ribosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Cell membrane Extracellular

Amino acids, peptide chains Certain spatial structure

○Biofilm system: structural system formed by organelle membranes + cellular membranes + nuclear membranes, etc.

Fourth: Nucleus = Nuclear Membrane (bilayers) + Nucleolus + Chromatin + Nucleolus fluid

Mercy newt experiment, salamander transverse constriction experiment, amoeba experiment, umbrella algae grafting and transplantation experiment

The nucleus is the place where genetic information is stored and replicated, and it is the control center of metabolic activities and genetic properties.

○ Chromatin and chromosomes are morphological structures in which the same substance transforms into each other at different stages of the cell cycle.

DNA Helix

○ + = Nucleosomes (beaded structures) Chromatin 30nm fibers

Histones Non-histone proteins

Helicalization

0.4um superhelical tubes (cylindrical) 2-10um chromatid monomers (cylindrical, rod-shaped)

II. Establishing a point of view ( Basic Ideas)

1. The existence of a certain structure necessitates the existence of a corresponding function;

○ Unity of structure and function

2. Any function requires a certain structure to complete

1. Various organelles are both morphologically and structurally and functionally different, but also interconnected and interdependent;

○ Division of labor

2. The biofilm system of the cell reflects the coordination between the various structures of the cell.

○Biological wholeness: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; the phenomenon of life can be manifested only when the parts form a whole.

1. Structure: the parts of a cell are interconnected. For example, the endoplasmic reticulum distributed in the cytoplasm is connected to the nuclear membrane and the cell membrane.

2. Function: different structures of the cell have different physiological functions, but is coordinated. Such as secretory protein synthesis and secretion.

3. Regulation: the nucleus is the regulatory center of metabolism. Its DNA regulates life activities by controlling the synthesis of protein-like substances.

4. and the outside world on the relationship: each cell to neighboring cells, and direct contact with the external environment of the cell and the external environment for the exchange of materials and energy conversion.

Six, summarize

Cells are both the basic unit of the structure of organisms, as well as the basic unit of metabolism and heredity of organisms.

(IV) Transport of cellular substances

○The journey of scientists to study the structure of the cell membrane began with the phenomenon of transport of substances across the membrane. Analysis of the components is the basis for understanding the structure, and the phenomenon and function provide clues to explore the structure. People formulated hypotheses based on experimental observations and revised them through further experiments, in which advances in methods and technology played a key role

Components: phospholipids and proteins and sugars

Structure: unit membrane (sandwich) → flow mosaic model

Cell Membrane Characteristics Structural features: relatively fluid

Physiological properties: Selective permeability (selective for ions and small molecules)

Protection

Functions Controls the exchange of substances in and out of the cell

Cellular recognition, secretion, excretion, immunity, etc.

I. Examples of Transport of Substances Across the Membrane

1. Moisture

Conditions Concentration Exofluid > cytoplasmic/fluid Exofluid <. Cytoplasm/fluid

Phenomenon Animals Water loss and crumpling Water absorption and swelling and even rising

Plants Plasmic wall separation Plasmic wall separation recovery

Principle External factors Osmosis of water

Endogenous factors Differences in contraction caused by differences in stretch between the protoplasmic layer and the cell wall

Conclusion Absorption and loss of water by the cell is a process of transporting water across membranes along a gradient of relative content.

○ Conditions for osmosis to occur: semipermeable membrane, concentration difference between inside and outside the cell

○ Osmosis: phenomenon in which water moves from a system with a high water potential through a semipermeable membrane to a system with a low water potential.

○ semipermeable membrane: general term for a class of films that allow small molecules to pass through but large molecules cannot.

○ Plasmic wall separation and recovery experiments can be extended to: (referring to the protoplasmic layer and the cell wall)

1) to prove that osmosis occurs in mature plant cells; ② to prove that the cell is alive;

3) as a method of observing the cell membrane under the light microscope; ④ preliminary determination of the size of the concentration of the cytosol;

2. inorganic salts and other substances

① Different organisms absorb inorganic salts in different types and amounts.

② Substances are transported across membranes both with and against the concentration gradient.

3. Selectively permeable membrane

A membrane that allows water molecules to pass freely, some ions and small molecules to pass, and other ions, small molecules and macromolecules to pass.

□ A biological membrane is a selectively permeable membrane and is strictly semi-permeable.

II. Flow mosaic model

1. Key points

① The phospholipid bilayer constitutes the basic scaffolding of a biofilm, but this scaffolding is not static, it is mobile.

② Proteins are embedded in, penetrate, and cover the phospholipid bilayer, and most proteins are also mobile.

③ natural glycoproteins Proteins and sugars combine to form natural glycoproteins, forming a glycocontainment with protection, lubrication and cellular recognition, etc.

2. Differences and similarities with the unit membrane

Similarities: the main substances that make up the cell membrane are lipids and proteins

Differences: ① flow: there is a distribution of proteins is uneven and asymmetric; emphasize that molecules that make up the membrane are in motion. of the membrane.

②Mono: proteins are evenly distributed on both sides of the lipid bilayer; biological membranes are considered to be static structures.

Three, the mode of transmembrane transport

Water, glycerol, gas, ethanol, benzene | free diffusion | cis | × × × × × | selected for uptake of the substance from the side of the concentration of the high side of the membrane through the cell to the side of the concentration of the low side of the transport

Glucose into the erythrocyte | assisted diffusion | cis | √ | ×

and excretes waste products produced by its metabolism and substances that are harmful to the cell.

○Macromolecules or particles: cytophagy, cytotoxicity

IV. Summary

Composition Determines

Phospholipid molecule + Protein molecule Structure Function (exchange of substances)

have

Causes Guarantees Manifests

Motility Fluidity Normal Selective Permeability of Substances Exchanges

Components make up structure. Structure determines function. Most of the phospholipid and protein molecules that make up the cell membrane are mobile, thus determining the fluidity of the structure of the cell membrane they form. The fluidity of the structure ensures that the carrier proteins can transport the corresponding substances from one side of the cell membrane to the other. As the number of different carriers on the cell membrane is different, so, when the material in and out of the cell can reflect the different substances in and out of the cell membrane of the number, speed and ease of different degrees, that is, reflecting the material exchange process of selective permeability. It can be seen that mobility is the inherent properties of the cell membrane structure, regardless of whether the cell and the outside world material exchange relationship, mobility always exists, and selective permeability is the physiological characteristics of the cell membrane description, this feature, only in the mobility based on the completion of the material exchange function can be embodied.

V) Cellular energy supply and utilization

H2O Outside

Water

H2O O2 Mineral elements

[H]

Light ATP Protoplasm

ADP+PI Heat

ATP

ADP+PI

CO2+ H2O C3H6O3 C2H5OH+CO2

I. Enzymes - Reducing the activation energy of reactions

◎ Neo/cellular metabolism: a general term for all the ordered chemical reactions in a living cell.

◎ Activation energy: the energy required for a molecule to change from its normal state to an active state where chemical reactions can easily occur.

1. Discoveries

①Before Pasteur: fermentation was a purely chemical reaction, unrelated to life activity.

② Pasteur (French, microbiologist): fermentation is related to living cells; fermentation is whole cells.

③Libich (German, chemist): it is certain substances in the cell that cause fermentation, but these substances can only act after the yeast cell has died and lysed.

④Bichner (German, chemist): certain substances in the yeast cell are able to continue to act as catalysts after the yeast cell has broken up, just as they do in living yeast cells.

⑤ Sumner (US, scientist): urease, purified from the seeds of the saber bean, is a protein.

6 Many enzymes are proteins.

⑦Cheech and Altman (US, scientist): a few RNAs have biocatalytic functions.

2. Definition

Enzymes are catalytic organic substances produced by living cells, the vast majority of which are proteins.

Note:

①Produced by living cells (associated with ribosomes)

②Catalytic properties: A. More than inorganic catalysts can reduce the activation energy of chemical reactions, increase the speed of chemical reactions.

B. There is no change in the nature and quantity of the enzyme before and after the reaction.

③Composition: the vast majority of enzymes are proteins, a few enzymes are RNA.

3. Characteristics

① High efficiency: catalytic efficiency is very high, so that the reaction speed is very fast, is the general set of inorganic catalysts 107--1013 times.

② Specificity: each enzyme can only catalyze one or a class of chemical reactions. → Diversity.

③ need the right conditions (temperature and pH) → mildness → variability .

The catalytic action of enzymes requires suitable temperature, pH, etc. Too acidic, too alkaline, high temperature will destroy the enzyme molecular structure. Low temperature also affects enzyme activity, but does not destroy the molecular structure of the enzyme.

Example

Analysis Under the condition that the substrate is sufficient and other factors are fixed, the rate of enzymatic reaction is directly proportional to the enzyme concentration. 1. at low S, V speeds up with increasing S, nearly proportional;

2. at low S, V speeds up with increasing S, but not significantly;

3. when S is very large and reaches a certain limit, V also reaches a maximum, at which point the reaction almost ceases to change even if S is increased further.

1. within a certain T V accelerates with the

elevation of T;

2. under certain conditions, each enzyme has the greatest vigor at a certain T, which is called the optimum temperature;

3. when T is elevated to a certain limit, V decreases with the increase of temperature instead.

◎Animal T: 35-40 ℃

PH : 6.5-8.0

◎Enzyme engineering

Production of extracts Made into enzyme preparations Applications Treatment of diseases; processing and production of some products;

and isolation and purification Immobilized enzymes Laboratory diagnostics and water quality testing; Other branches.

Two, ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

◎ ATP is a high-energy phosphate compounds commonly found in the cells of living organisms, is the direct

energy source of living organisms to carry out various life activities, its hydrolysis and synthesis exists in the release and storage of energy.

1. Structural formula

A - P ～ P ～ P

adenosine Ordinary chemical bond 13.8 KJ/mol High-energy phosphoric acid bond 30.54 KJ/mol Phosphoric acid group

2. ATP and ADP conversion

ATP

Respiration

(mitochondria) Suction Pi

(cytoplasmic matrix) Energy Absorption Secretion (osmotic energy)

(chloroplasts) Emission Muscle contraction (mechanical energy)

Photosynthesis Pi Energy Nerve conduction, bioelectricity (electrical energy)

ADP (every living cell) Anabolism (chemical energy)

Body temperature (thermal energy)

Firefly ( Light energy)

◎ Sugar - main energy substance Heat energy Dissipation

Sunlight energy Fats - main energy storage substance Oxidation

(direct energy) Proteins - one of the energy substances Decomposition Chemical energy ATP

Hydrolytic enzymes, excretion

< p>◎ ATP ADP + Pi + energy

synthetic enzymes, absorption

3. Can produce ATP: mitochondria, chloroplasts, cytoplasmic matrix

Can produce water: mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, nucleus

Can base complementary pairing: mitochondria, chloroplasts, ribosomes, nucleus

Three, the main sources of ATP --Cellular respiration

◎Respiration is the process of taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide through respiratory movements.

◎Cellular respiration is the process by which organic matter undergoes a series of oxidative decomposition in the cell to produce carbon dioxide or other products, releasing energy and generating ATP. It is divided into:

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Concept It refers to the process in which the cell, with the participation of oxygen, thoroughly oxidizes and decomposes organic matter such as glucose through the catalytic action of a variety of enzymes, producing carbon dioxide and water, releasing energy, and generating many ATPs. Refers to the process by which cells, with the participation of oxygen and through the catalysis of many enzymes, break down organic matter such as glucose into incomplete oxidation products, while releasing a small amount of energy.

Process ① C6H12O6 → 2 pyruvate + [H] + 2ATP

② 2 pyruvate + 6H2O → 6CO2 + [H] + 2ATP

③ [H] + 6O2 → 12H2O + 34ATP ① C6H12O6 → 2 pyruvate + [H] + 2ATP

→ 2C3H6O3

② 2 pyruvate → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2

Reaction formula C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 12H2O + 38ATP C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3 + 2ATP

→ 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + 2ATP

Differences Site : ① ② mitochondrial matrix ③ Endomembrane Always in cytoplasmic matrix

Conditions : Except ①, molecular oxygen and enzyme are needed Molecular oxygen and enzyme are not needed

Products : CO2, H2O alcohol and CO2 or lactic acid

Energy : Large amount, synthesized 38ATP (1161KJ) Small amount, synthesized 2ATP (61.08KJ)

Similarity Connection : The same stage of the decomposition of glucose into pyruvic acid. Pyruvate stage is the same, later stages are different

Substance : Decomposition of organic matter, release of energy, synthesis of ATP

Significance : Provide energy for the various life activities of organisms; provide raw materials for the synthesis of other compounds in the body

Comparison

Photosynthesis Respiration

Reaction sites Green plants (in chloroplasts) All organisms (carried out mainly in mitochondria)

Reaction conditions Light, pigments, enzymes Enzymes (carried out at all times)

Substance transformations Synthesis of inorganic CO2 and H2O into organic matter (CH2O) Decomposition of organic matter to produce CO2 and H2O

Energy transformations Transformation of light energy into chemical energy to be stored in the organics Release of energy from the organics, partial transfer of ATP <

Substance Synthesis of organic matter, storage of energy Decomposition of organic matter, release of energy, production of ATP

Connection Organic matter, oxygen

Photosynthesis Respiration

Energy, carbon dioxide

◎Substance of photosynthesis

Converts light energy into active chemical energy through the light reaction, and converts carbon dioxide and water into organic matter through the dark reaction. The synthesis of organic matter through the light reaction converts light energy into active chemical energy, carbon dioxide and water through the dark reaction to synthesize organic matter, and at the same time converts active chemical energy into stable chemical energy stored in organic matter.

Four, light and photosynthesis

◎ Photosynthesis refers to the green plant through the chloroplasts, the use of light energy, carbon dioxide and water into stored energy

Organic matter, and the release of oxygen process. Factors that influence this are: light, temperature, CO2 concentration, water, and mineral elements.

1. Discovery

Contents Time Process Conclusion

Priest 1771 Candles, mice, and green plants experiment Plants can renew the air

Sachs 1864 Leaf blades shading experiment Green plants produce starch in photosynthesis

Engelmann 1880 Watermilfoil photosynthesis experiment Chloroplasts are the photosynthetic site for the release of oxygen.

Rubin and Carmen 1939 Isotope labeling method Oxygen released from photosynthesis comes exclusively from water

2. Sites

Double membrane

Chloroplasts Stroma

Matrix Multiple vesicles (lamellipodia) stacked together

Carotenoids (orange) 1/3

Carotenoids Lutein (yellow) 2/ 3 Absorb blue-violet light