Italy, an ancient civilization, was ruled by the Holy Roman Empire in 962 after the Roman Empire (509-28 BC) and the Roman Empire (27-476 BC). 1 1 The Normans invaded the south and established a kingdom in the th century. 12 ~13 century split into many kingdoms, principalities, autonomous cities and small feudal territories. /kloc-has been occupied by France, Spain and Austria since the 6th century. 186 1 the kingdom of Italy was established in March. 1870 the royal army conquered Rome and completed reunification. 19221October 3 1 day Mussolini came to power and practiced fascist rule for more than 20 years. /kloc-0 * * was established on June 2, 946. After the war, Italian government changed frequently, but its internal and external policies were relatively stable and continuous.
Politically, Italy is still in the period of alternation between the old and new systems, and the political structure of the center-left and center-right alliances continues to develop, but there are many parties and multi-party joint governance continues to bring many unfavorable factors to Italy's long-term political stability and system reform. 1998 10, D'Alema, the national secretary of the left people's party, was appointed to form the center-left coalition government, becoming the first former prime minister of the * * * party in more than 50 years after the Italian war. Immediately after taking office, Daley highlighted the characteristics of reform, proposed to start from the electoral law to revitalize the political system reform, and basically formed a * * * knowledge with the center-right forces. Take the opportunity of passing the financial law to actively solve the employment problem, especially the development problem in the south, and ensure social justice. Signed a "social convention" with employers and employees and social organizations that is conducive to stable development. 19991February, because the "three-leaf alliance" in the center-left ruling Coalition publicly expressed no confidence in the D'Alema government, D'Alema voluntarily resigned from the president, and was later ordered to reorganize the cabinet successfully, and the 57th government was formally established after the war.
Around 5000 BC, many careless Italians sailed to Italy from other parts of the Mediterranean and settled in the southern part of the country. Tribes with Indian and European ancestry appeared around 1800 BC, and more definite tribes, mainly Ligurians from Sardinia, settled in today's Ligurian district; Ocean West Cubans, who flourished in southern Italy and today's Lazio region. Later, Pizzini and Mesabi, nomadic tribes from Balkan countries, settled in the Italian coastal areas of Adriatic Sea. What followed was the so-called ancient Italians-umbria, Samunai, Latina, Wolesi, Veniti and others, who colonized the northern and central parts of the peninsula. Around 800 BC, Phoenicians from Fei established colonies in Sicily and Sardinia; Celts, descendants of France, also came to Italy around 600 BC.
The Greeks
Around 735 BC, with the arrival of the Greeks, the settlement pattern in the southern region became more cohesive. Greece has long-term business dealings with parts of Italy, so immigrants from Greece are willing to live here for a long time. Independent Greek cities such as Accra and Catana (today's agrigento and Catania) rose in southern Italy and Silesia, forming Magna.
Graecia (Greater Greece). In the process of urban development, they have enriched the outstanding talents and skills of Italians who are good at invention and creation in the fields of art, culture and agriculture.
Many new colonies finally surpassed Greek cities, which led to the friction between Greater Greece and the motherland. In 44 15 BC, the Athenians launched a sea attack on Syracuse, the most powerful Greek city in Sicily, and were expelled in a large-scale sea battle in ancient history. The Etruscans in the north and the Carthaginians nearby challenged the Greeks further.
Carthaginian
The Carthaginians first belonged to a Phoenician great-grandmother in the coastal areas of North Africa. In the most prosperous period of Great Greece, it has become a powerful country in its own right, and soon established its own colonies next to Greek colonies in Sicily and other regions. In this way, the conflict is triggered. As early as the 3rd century, rival companies began to ignore each other's differences. In addition, at that time, the two competitors were also faced with a new super-threat-Rome. The Roman government saved Cusa, and the Carthaginians fought back many times before more than two people existed for some time.
etruscans
Just as the Greeks and Carthaginians were fighting for southern Italy, another major civilized country, Etruscan, exercised hegemonic rule over the divided territory in the north. Who are they? From which side 6? These two problems have always been a big mystery that puzzles archaeologists. According to the first historical records from 800 BC to 900 BC, they may be composed of foreign nationalities who are good at invention and creation from other tribes (mainly umbria people), and finally formed a language with the same language and a social view, artistic view and cultural view.
Their social structure was formed on the basis of the alliance of 12 cities which were not closely related to each other, and was ruled by the king who was engaged in clergy. However, they left few artistic and cultural relics, because many cities were built of wood and soon disappeared with the passage of time. In fact, the only evidence that can prove their existence is from the grave. For about 400 years, their cutting-edge technology and profound culture made them in an unchallenged position in central Italy, but in the end they were the prey of the Romans. By 300 BC, the Romans had occupied most cities.
Roman Empire
Rome was founded in 753 BC, but the relevant evidence shows that it was founded near BC 1200 or BC 1400, that is, the earliest age of pottery fragments found on Capitole Mountain in the city. By the 9th century BC, there may have been many scattered villages on the low hills on both sides of the Tiber River. At that time, this position was a strategic place between the territories of Etruscans in the north and Latinos in the south (another tribe living in central Italy). In the next three centuries, the region developed through trade prosperity and was ruled by king Etruscan.
In 509 BC, the Roman citizens overthrew the Etruscan rulers and established what they called a "country of harmony and system". Under this system, "the people are kings". Rome's cities continue to prosper, but the only shortcoming is that the gap between "ordinary people"-civilians and the political and military elites who quickly seized the shore-is widening. In 494 BC, the common people elected a tribune (or a local magistrate) to protect their interests, and made a speech against this and other shortcomings of society.
A strong political foundation (of which the tribune was a part) enabled Rome to start implementing its government plan. The area occupied by Etruscans, Samos and Greeks in southern Italy.
It soon fell. Then there was a conflict between Rome and Carthage, and the hostility between them led to three protracted wars, which was the famous Punic War. In the first war (264-24 1), Rome occupied the main islands of the Mediterranean-Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. In the Second World War (former 218-former 202), Rome was defeated by Hannibal, a Carthaginian military colleague, and suffered a heavy blow. In 202 BC, the campaign he led failed. In the third Punic War (pre-149-pre-146), the Carthaginians finally surrendered, so that Rome occupied most of the Mediterranean.
When Rome's overseas career is booming, there are civil strife at home. The government's repression and similar measures could not solve the new disputes between nobles and civilians. These disputes escalated and eventually developed into the so-called social war between 92 BC and 89 BC. The turmoil led to the military repression led by Sura, and the dictatorship of Commander Sura marked that the army had become a political force. One of the great events that happened during his reign was the slave uprising (73 BC-7 BC1), which was doomed to failure led by former fighter Spartacus.
Another commander-in-chief, Pang Pei, stood out after Sura's death. He and crassus jointly ruled, and crassus finally became a marginal task of the nobility. Due to his military achievements, Pang Pei was promoted. At this time, the third commander-in-chief-Julius tore? Caesar appeared. He joined the army in 8 1 BC to pay off his debts. In 63 BC, Kojima acquired the plant of the chief priest, the highest-ranking ceremonial priest in Rome. In 59 BC, he ruled the whole country together with crassus and Pang Pei, forming a three-power ruling situation, which is the famous "first three-headed alliance" in Roman history.
Caesar was originally famous for his speech ability and keen economic mind, but his military talents were quickly confirmed. During the year-long war, he won many brilliant victories in Britain, Germany and France today. These achievements caused pang Pei's jealousy. He tried to turn the Romans against Caesar, so he found an excuse to retaliate against Caesar. In 49 BC, Caesar returned to Italy. He led the army and decided to cross the Rubicon River (near Bologna today) in defiance of the law. At that time, the law stipulated; The army can't cross the river without the consent of the Senate. When warned of Caesar's arrival in advance, Pang fled with embarrassment, and Rome's political resistance collapsed.
In 48 BC, Caesar was appointed as the lifelong ruler of Rome. He vigorously carried out the policy of reform and revival to encourage lasting construction projects and restore laws and other systems. However, the power of the new dictator was envied. On March15th in 44 BC (that is, on March 5th in the Roman calendar), he was murdered by a conspirator group (including his adopted son Brutus) on his way to the Senate in his unfortunate district.
Caesar's murder caused a sensation throughout the country. The so-called "second three-headed alliance" made its debut, which was a performance by the Romans. Anthony, Libida and Octavian (Caesar
The grand nephew and designated heir). Next is Kyle? The power struggle between Anthony and Octavian lasted for 12 years. Anthony's relationship with Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, ruined his ambition. In 3 1 BC, Octavian's great victory in the battle of Akron marked Anthony's complete failure. Then, Octavian changed his name to Augustus, and in 27 BC, he ascended the throne of the emperor and began the world of Augustus. In the heyday of the Roman Empire.
Augustus' rule was supported by people. empire
The speed of expansion slowed down, the military victory was consolidated, and the government encouraged people to carry out large-scale engineering construction nationwide. Augustus was proud that "the bricks of Baroma became marble in a hundred years". The cultural life of Rome is also a thriving scene, especially in the field of literature, writers such as Ovid, Virgil and Horace have written masterpieces of classical literature.
Julio, the successor of Augustus? Claudius dynasty member-far behind him in talent. Emperor Tiberius (14-37), Emperor Claudius (41-54) and Emperor Nero (54-68) were mostly decadent people who could be bought with money, and they only squandered their property in large amounts. Only the great wealth created by the empire covered up the economic and bureaucratic deficiencies of this period. During Nero's tenure, the country has suffered multiple injuries, and persecution of Christians can be seen everywhere.
The land exchange of Flavian Dynasty (69-96)-Vespasian, Tiitus and Titus Flavius Domitianus-was very successful in general. Antony dynasty and its government officials-Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Anthony and Kyle? So is Aurelius. 1 17 years, under the rule of Trajan, the territory of the empire reached the largest; Hadrian is the most cultured and wise leader in history.
Decline and disintegration
Kyle? The death of Emperor Aurelius (161-180) can be said to be a watershed. The Roman Empire was threatened by foreign enemies for the first time. For a long time, all the ills of Rome under the cover of the empty rhetoric of the empire have been rewarded with evil. Inflation hit the whole country, Rome's economy was crumbling, the assets of the empire were used to mortgage and pay off debts, cultural life was also devastated, and the country began to change emperors more and more frequently. With the decreasing spoils plundered by the empire, domestic agriculture and commerce also declined. Social, military and other systems have become very fragile and dying.
The government made various efforts to curb the process of decline, the most important of which was to divide the empire into two jurisdictions, the east and the west, with their own emperors in Rome and Constantinople. These measures have brought temporary relief. At this time, a very strong-willed emperor, Constantine the Great (306-337), appeared. Under his rule, Rome flourished again. He was the first emperor to grant Christians freedom of religious belief. However, this relief is only temporary. In 395, the capital of the Western District of the Empire moved from Rome to Lavaine, which was easier to defend in the northeast. 15 years later, alaric, a Goth, sacked Rome. He was the leader of a tribe (belonging to the first so-called barbarians) from the Baltic Sea. The end of Rome has come. In 475, another Goth, Odysseus, banned Romulus, the last emperor in the western area of the empire. Augustu luce. In 493, Theodoric followed Auguste, who occupied Lavaine, the last capital of the empire, and thus ruled most of Italy.
Franks and Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire)
However, on the other side of the Mediterranean, Byzantium (the ancient Eastern Empire) escaped the bad luck of its neighbors to the west. During the period from 536 to 552, its emperor, Justinian, regained a large area of Italy and ruled by Byzantine, which influenced most parts of Italy for centuries. From 567 to 774, the arrival of the Lombard people broke the situation of complete hegemony and established a powerful duchy in the non-Byzantine areas of northern and central Italy. They were mainly Germans without religious beliefs.
The involvement of Franks further complicated the jagged situation of peninsula territory. This is a Christian people from Gaul (today's France). The existence of two rival dynasties-Carolyn Dynasty and Molovin Dynasty weakened the position of Franks in Gaul. Piping, the leader of the Carolingian dynasty, set out to deal with the conflicts between dynasties, and he called on the papal rule system (a system in which the papal custom power is growing) to arbitrate. In 754, Pope Stephen III approved Pippin's ruling power, but he asked the Franks to expel the rumba people from Italy in return.
Franks succeeded in doing this, partly under Piping's leadership and respectively under Piping's more famous son, Charlemagne. On Christmas Day in 800, Pope Saint Leo III made Charlemagne emperor of Rome, which was of great symbolic significance. Charlemagne handed over the territory of central Italy he had seized from the Lombard to the Pope, thus the seeds of papal peace and state appeared, and these territories provided the Pope with economic resources for exercising real political power for the first time.
The transfer of territory also strengthened the lasting relationship between the Pope and the empire. During the reign of Charlemagne and his more powerful successors, this relationship was mostly friendly (when the Frankish Empire finally split, the holy Roman Empire was still a cohesive entity). However, as time passed and the fortunes of the Pope and the Emperor changed, the relationship between them became tense. When the question of legitimacy arose, both sides resorted to Charlemagne's significant coronation convention: the pope had the right to recognize the emperor and the emperor had the right to appoint the pope. The influence caused by the stalemate between the two sides and the names of their respective camps and supporters-Guillermo (Pope) and Kipling (Secret Emperor) have echoed in the history of Italy for centuries.
Arabs and Normans
The Italian one is a completely different story. In its heyday, the Roman Empire was forced to repel the challenge from North Africa and defeated the Catalans in the Punic War. In the 9th century, there was another challenge from Africa, this time the Arabs (or Saracens) who invaded Sicily from North Africa in 827. They stayed on the island for almost two centuries and introduced countless new foods in culture, architecture, cooking and other aspects, which greatly enriched our lives (such as ice cream) until today.
Both Arabs and Byzantines were finally conquered by Normans (at that time, Byzantines still ruled other parts of southern Italy). Norman people, descendants of Scandinavians, once settled in Normandy in northern France. They searched for trophies everywhere and came to southern Italy as foreign mercenaries. By 1030, the Normans had established an independent kingdom in Puglia as a springboard to conquer Italy. Based on this, they invaded Sicily in 106 1 and established a dynasty. Rogers I and Rogers II were the most famous emperors, and they were related to William, the avenger of England 1 1 century.
A series of events during this period have influenced the development of southern Italy for centuries. When Rogers II was crowned King of Sicily, Naples and Sicily were unified, and the kingdom suppressed the island of existence in different forms 1860. However, the Norman hegemony was soon shattered. Like northern Italy, the southern region was ruled by the Holy See and the Holy Roman Empire.
1 186 The marriage between Henry VI, the holy Roman emperor, and constance, the Norman princess, accelerated the decline of the Norman nation. /kloc-in 0/94, the Norman family was completely destroyed, and Henry's lucky marriage made him the heir to the Norman throne. Roman ships once approved Charlemagne and Norman to rule southern Italy, so the Pope hated the emergence of the empire. Henry's son-Frederick? Hohenstaufen (1197 ——1205) was a great man in the middle ages. He was not influenced by the attitude of the Pope at all. For example, he didn't care at all about the excommunication of 1228. He ruled the southern region skillfully, and because of his outstanding achievements in art, science and military affairs, people gave him the title of "miracle of the world".
Frederick's son, Manfred, was not as talented as his father, and was defeated by Charles of Anjou Province (son of King Louis VIII of France) in 1266. 1260, the Pope asked Charles to move the capital to Naples, and together with the heirs of Anjou Province, he established a dynasty there and ruled the southern region for two centuries. Only during the evening prayer uprising against Anjou people launched by sicilian, the Sicilian aristocrats sought help from external forces, and this time they turned to Peter III of Aragon. Aragon not only captured Sicily, but also made an unexpected turning point in history in 1442. Alfonso V, the ruler of Aragon, was actually appointed as the last emperor heir of Anjou people in Wei Naples. In this way, the southern region was ruled by Spain until the18th century.
city-state
During the same period (11-12nd century), city states appeared in northern Italy. At first, it was the weakness of the Holy See and Holy Rome that led to the emergence of these independent small areas, and they should have exercised power in these areas. Most emperors were unable to organically combine their obligations in northern Europe (the main power base) with their mission of exercising power in Italy. As far as the Vatican itself is concerned, its dispute with the empire greatly weakened its strength and finally succumbed to French rule. 1309, the Holy See was forced to move to avignon and remained under French "protection" until 1377.
Cities use the power vacuum to form independent individuals day by day. Genoa, Pisa, amalfi and Venice (the most prominent), known as the maritime countries, became rich through overseas trade. Cities such as Florence and Siena are prosperous because of developed prevention and banking. Other cities, such as Milan, Bonirenza and Verona, are also increasingly developed because they are located in the main roads of trade and transportation. Finally, more than 400 city-states are distributed in northern Italy. Only in the south, the dominant old Spanish feudal system has kept the pace of development. This stagnation continued into the 20th century.
At first, most cities and seas enjoyed democratic rule, and businessmen and a few nobles could be elected to join the ruling institutions. However, with the passage of events, internal disunity and disputes between competing cities have led to the continuous division of cities. Such a social background often produces a talented person or a wealthy family, and only they can rule in turbulent times, such as medici in Florence, visconti in Milan, Esther in Ferrara, Gonzaga in mantua and Scaliger in Verona.
Although these wealthy families are often autocratic, they ensure the social stability needed for economic prosperity and development. At the same time, these families are often enlightened art patrons. The cities under their jurisdiction have become the literary centers of Voltage, and people have made unprecedented efforts in the fields of art and culture. In the field of literature, Dante (1265-1321) Petrarch (1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313) appeared. There are Giotto (1266-1337), Mabuse (1240-1302) and Du Qiao (1255-13/kloc). In the field of architecture, Arnolfo appeared? Di cambio (1245—— 1302), who designed Florence Cathedral; In the field of sculpture, Giovanni appeared? Pisano (son), Nicholas? Pisano (father) and many artists. The development momentum of this period is reflected in religion. For example, San Francesco (1182-1226) gave new vitality to the prevailing religious orthodoxy at that time, and at the same time raised objections to it. The achievements in the academic field are also obvious, not only the classical Renaissance, but also the creation of several oldest universities in Europe (the most famous ones are Padua University and Bologna University).
The funding from the secular world frees artists from the conservative expression mode caused by their previous religious and artistic obligations. The same freedom has emerged in the academic field, and writers and thinkers can shift their focus from theology to the study of classical and humanistic articles. These phenomena are very close to the later Renaissance (the word comes from Italian rinasciment, which can also be used as "rebirth", see pages 33-34), that is, the revival of classical art models-the climax of art and other cultural activities.
However, although Italy is still immersed in the golden age that we think in retrospect today, the strong signs that led to its ultimate demise are already very obvious. The discovery of the New World and better trade routes to the East by Spain and Portugal gradually destroyed the trade in the Mediterranean region and the mainland, and the prosperity of Venice and other maritime powers was largely based on this. The rise of Ottoman (Turkish) Empire threatened the regime in Venice, and at the same time, the whole Italy was also implicated. However, the growing popularity of Italian city-states on the European stage will inevitably bring them into contact with other major powers on the European continent. Closer.
Within four months, with the help of the "Red Army", a famous army composed of volunteers in red clothes, garibaldi seized the southern region from the Bourbon dynasty. The papal state soon fell, leaving only Rome under the protection of the angry garrison. 186 1 March14th, the Kingdom of Italy was announced in Turin. 1866, Venice and Veneto also joined the kingdom. At that time, Bismarck and Prussia defeated Austria in the Battle of Sadova. 1870, due to the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the French army withdrew from Rome, so the last link was taken back, and a year later, it became the capital of the newly-established country.
United Italy
In the decades after reunification, politicians made concerted efforts to modernize Italy: they built roads and railways, improved education and encouraged the development of industry. At the same time, Italy also actively explored most parts of Eritrea (1885) and conquered Libya in North Africa (191-12). In addition, an election in which all men voted was held in 19 13 (women were not allowed to vote until 1946).
19 14 When World War I broke out, Italy remained neutral, but within nine months (19 15 May 24), it was possible to further colonize Africa and occupy the so-called "areas that should belong to one country and be ruled by other countries" (Italy is still controlled by Austria) At the beginning, the Italian newborn army couldn't beat the Austrian army and lost in several important battles. It was not until 19 18 that it won in vittorio, Veneto district.
Italy got what it wanted in the peace treaty of 19 19, but after the war, it was still facing painful economic and social upheaval. Political chaos followed, and the roar of extremism provided fertile soil. Former socialist journalist benito? Mussolini, cleverly taking advantage of this situation, sent his followers in black shirts to stir up chaos in the village, and used sweet words to seduce the nervous upper and middle classes in Italy.
1922 The threatened change of the general strike provided a catalyst. Mussolini set out from Milan and started the famous "Rome March", which made Wang Wei Torre, who was afraid of civil war? Emmanuel III recognized Prime Minister Mussolini Wei. Although his fascist party's performance in parliament was insignificant, he quickly consolidated his political power and finally became the "leader". By 1925, he had established a fascist dictatorship, and let it naturally and gradually move towards the alliance with Nazi Germany, ready to wage war.
1940, Italy joined forces with the Nazis, hoping to benefit from Germany's total victory in Poland and France. However, the Italian army was not fully prepared and rustic, and suffered repeated defeats in the battles of Greece and Ethiopia, and suffered heavy losses in the battle of Sicily when the allied forces landed in July 1943. 1943 After the armistice in September, Mussolini was imprisoned. In the chaotic situation, the new Italian government declared war on Germany. Hitler released Mussolini by coercive means and formally appointed him as the head of the Italian puppet government, starting a difficult war of attrition against the approaching allied forces.
1June 4, 944, Rome was finally occupied, but the Allies did not cross the mint in northern Italy until April 24, 945. Mussolini was captured on the way to Switzerland and executed on April 28th.
Until today.
Remarkable post-war reforms in Italy began in June 1946, when the national referendum passed the resolution of replacing the absolute monarchy with a republic of * * * by a very small margin. Marshall Plan has played a catalytic role in the prosperity and development of economy, the easy availability of cheap labor and the promotion of Italy. 1957 Treaty of Rome marks Italy's integration into the mainstream of Europe, which is a document laying the foundation for the European Union. Italy is one of the six founding countries of the European Union, and Rome hosted the Olympic Games in 1960, which further consolidated Italy. In the same year, Federico? Ferini's famous film "Sweet Life" was released, which showed the Italian characteristics and styles in the ten years of extraordinary changes.
The pace of change in Italy is that there is no problem. By the 1960s, economic prosperity would naturally develop as long as it followed its own trajectory. The strength of the Coalition government has weakened and the economy has become more stable. These factors have led to serious social tensions. 1968, during the so-called "hot autumn" period, unrest broke out and demonstrations of workers and students swept across the country.
In the next few years, things got worse. Italy has been devastated by various political forms of terrorism. 1978, Italy fell into the lowest valley and the most terrible terrorist group: the Red Team kidnapped and killed former Prime Minister Aldo? Moro. However, as soon as the threat of terrorism ended, the corruption scandal in the early 1990 s completely collapsed Italy's dying political system. What happened at that time seemed to have led to remarkable changes, and it also showed for the first time that Italy really longed for the reform of the political system and constitution. As a result, the Second Republic was declared in 1994, but it was just an illusion of dawn. Recently, due to breach of contract, the once close relationship between Italy and the European Union has changed to some extent.