On the Unification and Modernization of Germany

【 China Library Classification Number 】 K5 16.4 【 Document ID 】 A 【 Document Number 】1000-5374 (2002) 06-0707-08

When discussing modernization, we usually consider social factors, such as the change of industrial structure, the development of science and technology, the formation of new classes or the spread of new ideas. This is essentially a gradual and natural change process. The issue of reunification mainly involves some political events, such as unified forces, unified methods or unified strategies. This is more of a violent and man-made rapid change process. These two processes with different nature and different time and space are not necessarily related. However, under the specific historical conditions of modern Germany, there is a very close and special relationship between unification and modernization. Political disintegration has always been a great misfortune in the history of German national development. 15 17 Luther's religious reform kicked off the bourgeois national reunification movement, but reunification was carried out under the cloak of religion. With the modernization wave in western Europe pushed to the periphery, German society was also deeply shaken, and then the unification movement began to be closely integrated with modernization. 1807' s anti-Napoleonic War and 1848' s German bourgeois revolution were deeply branded with modernization. Modernization objectively needs a unified market, and the modern industrial bourgeoisie also needs a unified nation-state as the representative and protector of its national interests. Modernization is inseparable from national unity. At the same time, the development of modernization, the industrial revolution and the progress of industrialization have also played a great role in promoting the reunification of Germany, which is also inseparable from modernization and is largely the product of modernization. Therefore, the unification of Germany and the modernization of Germany are closely related, interacting and promoting each other.

one

As soon as modernization appeared in Germany, it was closely intertwined with the reunification of Germany. This is the necessity of the historical development of Germany and the objective need of the development of the German nation itself.

In modern times, Britain and France have long established a unified nation-state and solved the problem of reunification. Internally, in order to consolidate their rule, the autocratic kingship of these nation-states devoted themselves to unified measurement, built roads, cancelled checkpoints, established financial systems, and promoted the development of free trade and commodity economy. Externally, the monarchy pursued mercantilism and colonialism, protected the growth of domestic industry and commerce, and developed raw material producing areas and commodity markets. The civil class has been greatly developed in the embryonic stage of absolute monarchy. Unified nation-states such as Britain and France have also become the most powerful countries in the world. However, although German society has been affected, it has not undergone fundamental changes. In the 30-year war, Britain, France and even Sweden fought bloody battles for their respective interests, while the German states were still fighting in their own way, and the consciousness of German national unity remained indifferent. If we say that in the18th century, Germans began to have a national consciousness, then this is just a romantic cultural nationalism circulating in the ideas and intellectual elites [1] (page 1 12). This is obviously different from the "political nationalism" formed by nation countries such as Britain and France based on the same political will and economic interests. Even in the middle and late18th century, the ambitious King Friedrich never said anything about unifying Germany. So, what events or factors finally put the issue of reunification on the agenda? The author thinks that this event is the Napoleonic Wars, and this factor is the influence of modernization on German society.

From the Battle of Marengo in 1800 to the Battle of Waterloo in 18 15, Napoleon fought a war with feudal Europe for 15 years. Germany, which is adjacent to France, was hit hardest by the war. 1805 The failure of the third anti-French alliance, the signing of the Plansburg Peace Treaty and the establishment of the Rhine Federation directly led to the disintegration of the Holy Roman Empire. At this point, the formal German state no longer exists, and how to recover the old mountains and rivers has been put on the agenda. The defeat of Prussian troops and allied forces with Russia in 1806 and 1807 and the signing of the Tilsit Peace Treaty made Prussia, a powerful country with a land area of 300,000 square kilometers, a population of more than 6,543.8+million and an army of 250,000, once regarded by the bourgeoisie as a place of progress and rationality, together with its self-proclaimed strongest army and enlightened despotism spirit in Europe. The failure of Germany, represented by Puao, reflects the decline of the autocratic rule of the vassal regime based on serfdom. The Napoleonic Wars dealt a heavy blow to Germany's feudal autocracy, destroyed Germany's powerful feudal division pattern, and objectively contributed to the unification of Germany and the rise and growth of new factors within society. 1803, the meeting of representatives of the whole empire held by the relevant German states under the attack of the Napoleonic Wars cancelled 1 12 states, which reduced the number of states to more than 30, and Germany took a big step towards reunification. More importantly, German political nationalism was born in the war, and people realized that backwardness was caused by national division, so a new social force emerged, demanding national unity and political freedom under the banner of western nationalism and liberalism. In its view, freedom and unity are inseparable. Although Prussia is weakened, it is the only independent country in Germany and the hope of Germany. Only by reviving Prussia can Germany be unified and revived. So, all the German elites gathered in Prussia to talk about reform. At the same time, the military fiasco made it impossible for Wang Pu to implement autocratic rule and realized the necessity of reforming feudal serfdom. It is in this situation that German liberal aristocrats and nationalists were able to carry out reforms and save Germany. The Stein-Hardenbergh reform began at 1807. Although the reform was only carried out in the remaining half of Prussia, it had German significance: it not only opened a new era for German history, that is, it began to embark on the road of modernization, but also provided Germany with the power of reunification. At the same time, Napoleon's capital ownership reform in the Rhineland region made the Rhineland region the first region in Germany to turn to capitalism, which promoted a modern German industrial and commercial bourgeoisie and provided an example for Prussian reformers to learn from and emulate. After 18 15, the most developed area in the Rhineland belongs to Prussia and becomes the locomotive of German modernization. /kloc-In the 1930s and 1940s of 0/9, the "Rhine Civilization" appeared, which not only developed into a heavy industry base in Germany, but also became the center of the German freedom and reunification movement.

Unity is the objective requirement of German national development, and modernization is the spirit of the times at that time. The Napoleonic Wars finally put these two important events concerning the survival of the German nation on the agenda and promoted the combination of them.

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19 in the 1920s, German industry began to flourish. The 1930s and 1940s were the initial stages of German modernization. Once Germany's modernization is started, it is closely related to Germany's reunification. Although the Napoleonic Wars merged a large number of vassal States, Germany was still divided and ruled by more than 30 countries. This split situation has increasingly become an obstacle to the development of capitalism after the start of the modernization of Germany, Italy and Chile, and overcoming the national split has become a barrier that Germany must break through in its modernization. Friedrich, an outstanding representative of the German industrial and commercial bourgeoisie and a pioneer of German national unity? Liszt's efforts to establish the German customs union and the all-German railway system closely combined the process of German modernization with the process of national reunification, and first successfully broke through this division economically. The customs union and the all-German railway system became the main carriers of Germany's modernization and unification movement at that time, which was the most typical embodiment and perfect combination of the interactive promotion between Germany's will modernization and unification. Liszt once described it appropriately: "The railway system and the customs union are conjoined twins; They were born at the same time, connected with each other's limbs, with only one thought and one feeling. They support each other and pursue the same great goal, which is to unify all parts of Germany into a great, civilized, rich, powerful and inviolable nation "[3] (pp. 347-377).

Influenced by the Napoleonic Wars and initiated by Liszt, German states realized the importance of railways in politics, economy and military affairs, and set off an upsurge of railway construction. 1835 Germany built the first railway with a length of 6 kilometers, 1939 built a railway with a length of 0/33 kilometers. By 1845, 20 railways have been built in Germany, with a length of 287 1 km, and the length of German railways exceeds that of France. From the 1950s of 19, the railway construction in Germany reached its climax and began to form a railway network. By the end of 1960s, the railway pattern in modern Germany was basically formed. According to statistics, the length of German railway lines (excluding Austria) 1850 is 5822km, 1855 is 778 1km,1026km, 1860 and/kloc-0. Prussian railways account for the main share: 1850, 3,869 kilometers, 1 1520 1870 kilometers [5] (pages 376-380), thus controlling the operation of German railway network and consolidating its economic leading position in Germany. Railway construction has greatly promoted the development of heavy industries such as coal and steel. The completion of the railway network has facilitated the mining of German coal and greatly increased its coal output. By 1860, Germany's coal output had surpassed Belgium and France. Coal mining provides abundant energy for the iron and steel industry, and railways become the main consumers of iron. From 186 1 to 1870, there was a strong upsurge in the ironmaking industry in Germany, and the pig iron output surpassed France and approached Britain [6] (page 2). The newly established ironmaking, ironmaking and machine manufacturing enterprises in Prussia are the highest in Germany, accounting for more than 70%. Due to the development of railway industry, some new industrial departments have been established. The telegraph industry established in the 1950s, the chemical industry and optical industry established in the 1960s, and the establishment of banks and joint-stock companies also began to promote Germany's industrialization. Another consequence of the development of railway industry is to promote the contact between German states. The establishment of the all-German railway network not only facilitates economic exchanges and promotes the formation of a unified market, but also greatly enhances the political, cultural and ideological exchanges of the German nation and enhances its sense of identity and cohesion.

The above discussion shows that Germany's railway construction and the formation of railway network have become a powerful pulling force for Germany's modernization, which has caused "decisive and actually revolutionary changes" in the entire economic structure and class power allocation of Germany, Italy and Chile [7] (p. 235). The growth of bourgeois power objectively requires a unified government and a broad market, which has effectively promoted the great cause of reunification. Just as the poets at that time called the railway "the unified wedding ribbon in Germany", the railway not only played an important role in economy, but also played an important role in promoting the exchange of ideas and the spread of freedom and democracy in various regions of Germany. Prussia also became the leader among German states because it controlled the railway network in Germany, and eventually became the core force of German unification.

The establishment of customs union, like the formation of the railway network in Germany, also plays an important role in the process of modernization and unification in Germany. Its establishment enabled the German nation to create a unified internal market in advance without being unified, thus achieving economic unity to a certain extent. It can be said that the customs union has two obvious purposes since its establishment: modernization and unification.

Because of Austria's indifference and negative attitude towards German reunification, Prussia, which has strong economic strength, has the opportunity to compete for German hegemony. It crossed the German Federation and implemented a tariff policy with all virtues. 1828 bilateral treaty between Prussia and Hesse-Damstedt and 1829 treaty between Prussia and Sü ddeutsche Zeitung laid two important steps for 1834 customs union. The Sino-German business alliance supported by Austria was isolated and began to split. 183 1 year, Hesse selected candidate countries to transfer to Prussia's tariff system, which broke through the barrier between Prussia's eastern and western territories and established a tariff bridge to the west. 1833, the above treaties merged, resulting in a far-reaching customs union in the history of German modernization. 1 834 65438+1October1,the customs union came into effect, and other small countries joined in succession. By June 1836 1, there were 25 15 1000 residents, accounting for 187 1. In this way, the growing products in Germany can be sold according to a unified policy. Due to Austria's self-isolation, Germany's political, economic and geographical hostility was first eliminated economically [8] (page 77). At that time, many people with lofty ideals realized the great promotion of economic union to political unity. In the memorandum to the King of Prussia, Prussian Finance Minister Motz wrote: "... customs clearance, customs clearance and tariff collection are only the result of political division among countries. If this is indeed a political truth, then conversely, when these countries form customs and commercial alliances, they will also be unified into a political system, which should also be the truth ... Germany will be unified under Prussian hegemony. " [8] (page 77) The formation of the German railway system and the establishment of the customs union greatly promoted the development of the German economy and further strengthened the strength of the German bourgeoisie. The growth of bourgeois power promoted the economic integration of Little Germany and Prussia. Starting from the 65438+1940s, in order to protect its young industry, the customs union adopted free trade internally and certain tariff protection externally. This policy was welcomed by the majority of the bourgeoisie and benefited the Prussian Yongke class greatly. Under the strong influence and infiltration of capitalism, the Yongke class was also involved in the wave of modernization-industrialization, and unconsciously participated in the national reunification movement of Germany, Italy and wisdom.

By 1852, all countries except Austria and Hamburg have joined the customs union. The railway not only closely connects the eastern agricultural economic zone with the western iron and steel industrial zone, but also pulls the coastal areas of Beihai and the southern mountainous areas into the national economic market. The bourgeoisie of each state benefited a lot from it, and regarded Prussia as their political and economic representative in Germany. At this time, they were able to protect the customs union. 1853, the government of the kingdom of Saxony, which has always been at odds with Prussia, was prepared to accept the plan of establishing great Germany and Central Europe under the leadership of Austria put forward by Austrian Prime Minister Schwartzenberg, but under the pressure of the bourgeoisie, it was forced to stand on the side of Prussia and support the customs union. There has been a real petition storm in the southern and western States in support of the customs union. Prussia finally defeated the Schwartzenberg Plan with the support of the German bourgeoisie. This crisis shows that it is impossible for small and medium-sized states to carry out their own policies, and they are no longer political forces on the side of Puao. Austria is also economically backward and has been unable to enter the customs union for a long time. 1862 The signing of the Franco-Prussian Agreement prevented Austria from joining the customs union and was eventually abandoned by other countries.

Since the 1960s, the economy of Little Germany has been integrated with Prussia. According to statistics, the total freight volume of German federal railways in 1860 was17 million tons, most of which was controlled and undertaken by Prussia. Prussian Railway Committee, founded in 1846, was expanded into German Management Committee in 1960s, and infiltrated into the states by various means [9](P.8-9). With the strong support of the German railway network, the customs union area has formed the same economic life, perfected the same language and the same culture developed in this period. The German nation was finally formed and consolidated. The unification of economy laid the foundation for the unification of politics. 65438+ The development of German modernization in 1950s and 1960s, especially the industrial revolution and economic development, has become a coercive force. Not only the bourgeoisie urgently needs national reunification, but even the Yong Ke class and even the princes and nobles in some countries feel that if they resist the trend of reunification, Germany will abandon them. It can be said that reunification is the general trend of Germany and the aspiration of the people. Under Bismarck's operation, Prussia, a powerful and ambitious country, assessed the situation and finally ruled out Austria and unified Germany in the form of a top-down dynasty war. Germany's reunification was achieved under the vigorous advocacy and promotion of the bourgeoisie created by Germany's modernization, under the favorable international and domestic situation created by modernization, and with the support of the great forces (financial resources, technology and new weapons) created by modernization. Denmark, Austria and France were defeated one after another and withstood the pressure of Russia in the late war. Bismarck's successful reunification with Germany, in the final analysis, conforms to the trend of modernization history.

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If the interdependence and mutual promotion of modernization and unification before German reunification are more manifested in the decisive role of modernization in reunification, then the relationship between them is more manifested in the reaction of reunification to modernization after German reunification. The unification of Germany greatly promoted the industrialization of Germany.

(a) Germany's reunification is a necessary political prerequisite for industrialization, which has eliminated the biggest obstacle to Germany's economic development and accelerated the formation of a unified national market.

The unification of Germany not only closely combined the whole German economy, but also formed an economic nationalism in Germany. In the fierce competition between "free trade" and "tariff protection", with the full protection and support of the unified empire, most countries that joined the empire have greatly improved their industrial strength and role in this competition. Therefore, Germany's entry into foreign trade has been reversed: 1872, Germany's foreign trade imports 3.262 billion marks, and exports 23.2/kloc-0.0 billion marks; By 1880, imports had dropped to DM 2.83 billion, while exports had increased to DM 2.923 billion [10] (p. 366). If Prussia leads Germany politically, it is Prussia that "melts" into a unified Germany economically. Unification has become a great driving force for Germany's economic modernization. This process of economic integration with unified prices and laws and regulations has created great capabilities for Germany's economic modernization.

(2) The unification of Germany marks the final establishment of the Prussian road.

The completion of the transformation of agricultural capitalism has laid a solid foundation for economic take-off. Germany is different from Britain. Industrialization is not at the expense of agriculture. On the contrary, it protects the development of agriculture on the basis of industrial modernization and promotes each other in the industrial revolution. Although "protecting agricultural interests" is to take care of the interests of the ruling class, maintaining a relatively balanced development of agriculture and industry is the characteristic and advantage of German economic modernization. The establishment of a unified country makes it possible to promote mercantilism. From this perspective, unification has a direct impact on agricultural modernization. 1879, Bismarck admitted to impose protective tariffs on agriculture to resist the influx of grain from eastern Europe and the United States, and he raised tariffs in 1885 and 1887. Under the protection of national tariffs, German agriculture flourished. According to statistics, in 2003, the grain output in Germany increased from1870-19150,000 tons to more than 3 10/00,000 tons. The development of agricultural economy has injected powerful stimulants into the development of German industrialization, and provided abundant means of subsistence, means of production, raw materials, capital and sufficient labor for the development of industry.

(3) The unification of the state's protection or intervention in the economy greatly promoted the development of the German economy.

At this time, Germany's economy is far from being able to compete with Britain in the international market. In order to protect Germany's national industry and improve its competitiveness as soon as possible, Bismarck implemented a tariff protection policy, set up a railway fund, formulated the Railway Law and established a banking system headed by the Central Bank, which further promoted domestic economic ties and free trade and supported the rapid rise of German industry. In addition, for the sake of national defense, Bismarck focused on expanding armaments, especially building forts and developing heavy industries related to military production. The expansion of military transportation and arms industry has also led to the development of a series of heavy industries such as steel, machinery and smelting. The reunification of Germany has greatly enhanced its national strength, enabled it to implement the so-called "continental policy" and established a balanced defense system in Europe. This has created a good international environment for Germany's economic take-off and won 20 years of peaceful development. As far as industrial growth is concerned, 1860- 1870 increased by 2.7% before reunification; From 1870 to 1880, reaching 4.1%; 1880 —— 6.4% of1890; 1890-1900 is 6. 1%. Its growth rate far exceeds that of Britain, France and other countries, second only to the United States [1 1] (page 1 10). World history shows that state power may not accelerate economic development, but it should be admitted that in the last 30 years of Germany19th century, the state used the favorable conditions of unification and national consciousness from the people to revive the country, and implemented a series of effective policies and measures, which promoted Germany's modernization.

(d) The unification of Germany is beneficial to the development of education, science and technology, and it also guarantees the rapid process of German economic modernization in spirit.

After the reunification of Germany, Bismarck government strengthened its control over education and promulgated a series of imperial educational decrees. In the 1970s, the modern education revolution was completed and the compulsory education system was implemented. This greatly improved the cultural literacy of the entire German nation. The illiteracy rate in Germany decreased from 9.3% in 184 1 to 5.25% in 1865, 2.38% in 18 1 and 0.33% in 1895. On this basis, the system of middle schools was adjusted, vocational and technical education was vigorously carried out, higher education was reformed, and a series of scientific research institutions were established. All this is unthinkable without the unified preparation of the country. Under the vigorous construction of the country, Germany's scientific research capacity has developed rapidly, and the development of scientific research has directly promoted the progress of technology, while Germans are better at applying scientific research results to production and transforming them into productive forces. By 1896, the ratio of scientific and technological personnel to workers has surpassed that of the United States, ranking first in the world. Carlo, a famous contemporary economic historian? m？ Cipolla commented: "It is the German preference for science in the second half of the19th century that makes the progress of German industry faster than that of Britain and the United States." [12] (page 194) Germany unified and attached importance to the relationship between science and technology education and German economic modernization, which was clearly stated in the speech of the host at the celebration meeting of the German Steel Workers' Union in 1904. He said that the brilliant development of German steel industry can be traced back to the strong enterprising spirit. After political reunification, it inspired our whole motherland ... and made our steel industry reach such a stage with irresistible force ... If it had not been hindered by political division, our steel industry would have reached this stage long ago "[13] (page 468). & ltBR & ltp & gt

It is against this background that in the second half of19th century, the most striking and amazing economic transformation took place in the history of Germany after reunification. In about 30 years, Germany experienced the industrial revolution that took Britain more than 100 years to complete, and transformed a backward country with a dominant agricultural position into a modern and efficient industrial technology country.

The unification of Germany not only greatly promoted the economic modernization of Germany, but also decided the political modernization of Germany to a great extent. Germany's political modernization began with the bourgeois revolution in 1848. In this revolution, a formal German federal government was born in the German National Assembly, and the constitution of the German Empire was formulated. 1849 On March 28th, the Constitution of the German Empire was adopted. This constitution was the most democratic one in Germany before the end of World War I, and it was a new national attempt constructed by the German bourgeoisie according to its own political ideals. However, because Germany was still divided at that time, the bourgeoisie was weak, and Prussia was not enough to overcome the obstacles of Austria, this constitution became a dead letter. However, this constitution, which was born in the process of German reunification, has a great influence on Germany's political modernization. It is the "birthplace" of the spirit of democratic government, which was directly inherited by Weimar and China Constitution.

The unification of Germany made it possible to formulate and implement the new constitution. 187 1 16 in April, Bismarck personally led the formulation of the imperial constitution, which was passed as it was in the newly elected parliament of the German Empire. In essence, the imperial constitution is a masterpiece of Bismarck, who made the federal constitution of North Germany formulated by 1867 applicable to the whole German empire. According to the constitution, the sovereignty of the empire belongs to the representatives of the States, and the federal parliament composed of representatives of the States is the most important institution of the empire and holds state power. The king of Prussia is the hereditary emperor of the German Empire. In international law, he represents the new country and has the right to declare war, make peace, form alliances, accept and appoint ambassadors. The Emperor appoints the Prime Minister and other administrative officials, and can also remove them from their posts. The emperor also has the right to command the army, call a legislative meeting or announce the dissolution of the legislative meeting, and laws are signed and promulgated by the emperor. The emperor had an imperial prime minister, who was also the prime minister of Prussia, and was responsible for leading imperial affairs. However, he is not responsible to the parliament, but only to the emperor. The imperial parliament is the representative body of the people, but its actual power is very small. There is no government in charge of it, so some people say that the imperial parliament can only publish "monologues" [14](P. 176).

Contrary to the constitution of Frankfurt period, Bismarck's imperial constitution is a constitutional federal constitution, seeking strong centralization. Based on this constitutional principle, the unified Germany has further consolidated its unity with its strong centralization, which is superior to the separatist tendency of all small countries [8] (page 156) and has gained great economic benefits for the bourgeoisie at home and abroad. But this kind of political modernization promoted by the unification of "top-down" deeply touched Prussia. The Prussian constitutional monarchy in Germany is that the monarch and Juncker hold real power and directly exercise the ruling power. It is significantly different from the British constitutional monarchy and has become a Prussian constitutional monarchy model with extensive influence in modern times. The German Empire is Prussia in the modern sense, that is, "a country that whitewashes the facade in the form of parliament, mixed with feudal remnants, once influenced by the bourgeoisie, organized according to the bureaucratic system, defended by the police, and has a military dictatorship" [15] (page 23).

Undeniably, the interaction and mutual promotion between German unification and German modernization play a decisive role in the realization of both sides. The unification of Germany is the product of German modernization. Without modernization, there would be no reunification of Germany. On the one hand, the unification of Germany has become the driving force of Germany's modernization, on the other hand, it has created good conditions for Germany's modernization and become a powerful boost to modernization. In the late19th century, during the reign of Emperor William II, the unified and modern German Empire finally rose in the center of Europe. But history shows that Germany's unification and modernization have their own insurmountable characteristics or disadvantages. So, can we find this kind of disadvantage in the process of German unification and modernization, and the relationship and function between them?

I think so, too. First, the unification promoted by modernization has left a legacy of ethnic problems for Germany. The unification of Germany was achieved under the modern coercive force (especially economic force) under the leadership of the Junk aristocracy. However, this coercive force controlled by Junk can only exclude Austria and realize the reunification of Little Germany. On the one hand, Britain, France and Russia, three neighboring countries, will never allow a unified German country to reach the southern Mediterranean and the northern Baltic Sea in the heart of Europe, and Prussia obviously has no power to oppose these three countries that may form alliances and interfere at any time. On the other hand, Juncker's strength is limited. If the "Great German Plan" is adopted, it will mean expanding to Austria under Habsburg rule, which will inevitably be strongly opposed by Bohemians and Germans who are dominant in Austria. Even if Prussia put all Austria under rule, the foundation of Juncker itself would be shaken. Bismarck chose the practical "Little German Plan" to unify Germany, but he had to exclude the Austrian Germans. This makes the Yong ke class represented by Bismarck fall into a dilemma: either lose the symbol of German national unity and lose the qualification to lead Germany, or break through the border of "Little Germany", thus making Yong ke unable to control the situation. In order to prove the rationality of Yong Ke's rule, William II held high the banner of German chauvinism and embarked on the road of aggression and expansion.

Secondly, the strength that Germany relies on and the way it adopts to achieve reunification have deeply branded German nationalism with Proust. After reunification, German nationalism developed viciously under the influence and infiltration of Prussian feudalism and militarism tradition, and with the rapid development of German capitalism and the rapid expansion of expansion forces, a new form of national chauvinism was developed at the end of 19. The German ruling group used various educational institutions to instill national chauvinism in the people. 1890 65438+in February, William II delivered a speech, demanding that schools cultivate "young German nationalists" and that schools "fight against social democracy" [16](3 15). Monopoly groups also actively create public opinion, set up organizations and publicize national chauvinism. Organizations such as the German Colonial Association established by 1882, the German Eastern Frontier Association established by 1894, the German Navy Association established by 1898, and the Anti-social Democratic Empire Association established by 1904 openly waved flags and advocated German national chauvinism. This newly formed national chauvinism, combined with the resurgent German will totalitarianism in the Middle Ages after the reunification of Germany, expanded rapidly with the implementation of William II's "World Policy" and the expansion of the army, which provided the ideological basis and self-defense reasons for the militaristic policy in the William era and became the driving force for the rulers to promote aggression and expansion. & lt