What is a literature review
The concept of literature review
Literature review is a large amount of literature on a particular discipline, specialty or topic of sorting and screening, analytical research and synthesis of a scholarly paper, is a highly condensed product of the literature. According to the content of the scope of different, the review can be divided into comprehensive review and thematic review of two types. The so-called comprehensive review is to a discipline or specialty as the object, and thematic review is to a thesis as the object.
The literature review reflects the current historical status of a sub-discipline or an important topic in a field, the latest progress, academic opinions and recommendations, which often reflects the new dynamics of the issue, new trends, new levels, new principles and new technologies. Literature review is for a research field to analyze and describe what previous work has been done, the progress to what extent, the requirements of domestic and foreign research on the dynamics of cutting-edge issues to make a more detailed review, and provide references. The authors generally do not express their personal opinions and suggestions, nor do they make any comments, but only reflect the facts in an objective and general way.
The role of the literature review
The literature review is highly condensed dozens or even hundreds of scattered and disorderly results of similar literature and the existence of the problem or focus of the debate, it is summarized and organized, so that it has reached the degree of organization and systematization. It is not only for scientific research workers to complete the preliminary labor of scientific research work to save a lot of valuable time for the review of the literature fold, but also very helpful to scientific researchers to learn from the results of others, to grasp the direction of the main focus as well as the leader of the scientific decision-making.
The significance of asking students to learn to write a review
Through the process of collecting literature, you can further familiarize yourself with the method of searching the literature and the accumulation of information, in the process of searching at the same time, also expand the knowledge base;
Looking up the literature, writing a literature review is the first step in the selection of scientific research, so learning to write a literature review is also a foundation for the future scientific research activities;
Looking up literature, writing a literature review is also a process for future scientific research activities;
We have been working hard on this project since the beginning of this year and we are now in the middle of the process.
Through the process of writing the review, it can improve the ability to summarize, analyze and synthesize, which is conducive to the improvement of the ability to work independently and scientific research.
Second, the selection of literature review and literature collection
Principle of selection
1. Combined with the knowledge of their own expertise or a basic topic, otherwise it is difficult to write a higher level of review.
2. Select the topic according to the quality and quantity of literature.
3. Selection of topics must be able to reflect the focus of the new contradictions in the discipline, new results, new trends.
4. The topic should not be too large, the scope should not be too wide. So that the number of literature is relatively small, easy to summarize and organize the writing, otherwise, the topic is too large, the literature spend too much time, affecting the internship, but also difficult to summarize and organize, and finally write a review of the big topic small or not the right topic.
(B) the collection of literature
1, the collection of literature
(1) the use of relevant search tools (including catalogs, abstracts and indexes, etc.) collection of literature.
(2) Use the international online search system to collect literature.
(3) Use of primary literature (including professional journals, scientific and technical reports, patents, dissertations, conference literature, monographs and standards, etc.) to collect literature.
(4) Collecting literature using primary literature (including reviews, commentaries, encyclopedias, yearbooks and manuals, etc.).
(5) Collecting literature through Interent and CD-ROM databases.
2, literature collection methods
The process of storing literature in the brain or on other carriers to form a "database" that can be accessed from time to time is called literature collection method. It includes reading, clipping, note-taking and modern technology storage method (such as photocopying, computer storage, CD-ROM storage, etc.).
Three, the format and writing
The format of the literature review is different from the format of the general research paper. This is because a research paper focuses on the methodology and results of the study, while a literature review requires that the reader be presented with detailed information about the topic, developments, progress, prospects and a review of these aspects. Therefore, the format of the literature review is relatively diverse, but in general, generally contain the following parts of the specific format: ① review title; ② author units; ③ abstract; ④ keywords; ⑤ preface; ⑥ theme; ⑦ summary; ⑧ references. The following focuses on the introduction, the theme of the section, the summary section and references. Writing a literature review can be based on these four parts of the outline, and then according to the outline of the writing work.
(a) Preface
Preface, mainly to explain the purpose of writing, introduce the concepts and definitions and the scope of the review, a brief description of the topic of the current situation or focus of the debate, so that readers of the full text of the issue to be described in a preliminary outline. The preface should be clearly written:
(1) First of all, to explain the purpose of writing.
(2) Definition of the concept.
(3) the scope of the review, including: "the scope of disciplines involved in the topic", the scope of the review must not be too wide, too many, "time frame", must declare the year of citation.
(4) briefly explain the current status of the issue or the focus of the debate, to introduce the core theme of the review, which is the most concerned and interested readers, but also the main line of writing the review.
(2) the theme of the part
Theme part, is the main body of the review, the writing method is diverse, there is no fixed format. Can be chronological synthesis, can also be synthesized according to different issues, but also according to different points of view for comparative synthesis, regardless of the format of the synthesis, will be collected in the literature to summarize, organize and analyze and compare the historical background of the subject matter, the current situation and the direction of development, as well as commentary on these issues, the theme of the part of the special attention should be given to representative of the strong, with the scientific and creative literature citations and commentary. and review.
(3) summary section
Summary section, and the research paper of the summary is somewhat similar to the theme of the full text of the brief summary of the theme of the review of the authors of the theme of the study, it is best to put forward their own insights.
(d) references
References, although placed at the end of the text, but is an important part of the literature review. Because it not only shows respect for the cited literature author and the basis of the cited literature, but also for the reader to explore the issues in depth to provide a literature to find clues. Therefore, it should be taken seriously. References should be organized clearly, easy to find, the content is accurate.
Four, notes
Because of the characteristics of the literature review, resulting in its writing is different from the "reading notes", "book report", but also different from the general scientific research paper. Therefore, in writing the literature review should pay attention to the following issues:
The collection of literature should be as full as possible. Grasp the comprehensive, a large number of literature is to write a good review of the premise, otherwise, casually collect a little information on the hands of writing is not likely to write a lot of review, and even write the article does not become a review.
Pay attention to the representative of the cited literature, reliability and scientific. In the collection of literature may appear in the same point of view, some literature in the reliability and scientific differences, so in the citation of the literature should pay attention to the selection of representative, reliable and scientific literature.
To focus on the theme of the literature of the various points of view for comparative analysis, do not textbook the relevant theories and schools of thought to briefly summarize the statement.
The literature review should be logically sound, that is, it should be cited from far and near the more distant literature, and finally the most closely related literature.
The review (especially when criticizing the inadequacy of the previous) should quote the original author's original text (to prevent misunderstanding of the original author's arguments), do not belittle others to elevate their own, can not be judged from second-hand material to the original author's "error".
The results of the literature review will clarify the shortcomings of the previous work and highlight the necessity and theoretical value of further research.
The ideas and content used in the literature should be cited, and models, graphs, and data should be cited without ambiguity.
The literature review should end with a brief summary of the work done by previous researchers in the field.
All references mentioned should be directly related to the research question.
The literature used in the literature review should be mainly selected from academic journals or academic conferences
The cited literature should be the full text of the original work read in person, and should not be cited only according to the abstract, and should not be cited by the literature cited by the content of the cited original text and not see the cited text, because this is often caused by the misunderstanding of the original meaning of the important reasons, and sometimes can cause irreparable loss of the scientific value of the review. Sometimes it can cause irreparable loss to the scientific value of the review.
In short, a good literature review should have a more complete literature, with commentary and analysis, and can accurately reflect the subject matter.
One of the Literature Review Sample Essays
Institutions and Economic Development and Growth Theory Review
Abstract:
Keywords: (Omitted)
The relationship between institutions and economic development and the origins of the system, institutional change and innovation, and the state's institutional supply together is known as the "four pillars" of the new institutional economics, and, in a large sense, the origin, change and innovation of the system and the state's institutional supply are the "four pillars" of new institutional economics, but also, in a large sense, the origin, change and innovation of the system and the state's institutional supply. Moreover, in a large sense, the origin, change and innovation, supply and demand of institutions are all related to economic development and growth. In conclusion, an efficient system promotes economic growth and development; an inefficient system inhibits or even hinders economic growth and development.
I, the theory of economic growth and development in retrospect
1. Marx's theory of economic growth on the system
Marx believed that there is no abstract production, and there are no productive forces and their development without the system (Marx's reference to the relations of production, which is in essence the system). Productive forces are always organized and operated in certain relations of production. Advanced relations of production promote the development of the productive forces, while backward relations of production hinder their development. A relatively stable production relations (institutional framework) that lasts for a certain time span provides an institutional "space" for the corresponding development of the productive forces, which is a very important revelation for many economists to study the relationship between institutions and economic growth and development.
2. The main schools of Western economic growth theory
(1) The modeling school
They believe that socio-economic growth or development is the result of the combination, configuration, superposition and qualitative change of various factors of production that promote economic growth. They will be a variety of growth factors as independent variables, the economic growth (usually expressed in gross national product, national income, per capita income, etc.) as the dependent variable, to determine the functional relationship, the establishment of a variety of economic growth model to explain economic phenomena. The most famous are Harold = Doma economic growth model, neoclassical economic growth model (i.e., Solow = Swann model) and Kaldor, Robinson, Pasinetti and other advocates of the Cambridge economic growth model. These economic growth models in essence only explain the relationship between long-term economic growth and short- and medium-term economic growth, and strive to make the growth of aggregate demand determined by output to match the total production capacity of the production of goods, and gradually emphasize the role of technological progress in economic growth, ignoring the role of institutional factors.
(2) Structuralists
They believe that economic growth and development is not only a process of growth and expansion of a country's economic volume (total and average) and capacity, but also a process of transformation of a country's economic structure. The main Lewis and other "dual structure theory"; Knox's "poverty cycle theory"; Rodin's "big push theory" arising from the "investment indivisibility"; Chenery and others advocate the "developmental type" theory; and "two gaps theory", and "balanced and unbalanced growth" theory and so on. In this school of thought, the institutional factor and background are already implicit. Among them, Lewis's "dual structure" theory is particularly obvious. Therefore, some people even classify Lewis as a new system.
(3) Stage school
The representative of this school is Rostow, who divided the economic development into six stages, namely, the traditional social stage, the stage of preparation for take-off, the stage of take-off, the stage of maturity, the stage of high mass consumption and the stage of pursuing the quality of life. It is easy to see that the framework of the institutional context is becoming more and more obvious.
(4) Factor or Origin School
In this school of thought, Danielson divided the factors of economic growth into two categories: factor inputs and factor productivity. The factors are subdivided into eight areas (some summarize them as seven), namely: the number and structure of workers employed; hours of work; the educational level of workers employed; the size of the capital stock; the state of knowledge; the share of labor allocated to inefficient use; the size of the market; and the pattern and strength of short-run demand pressures.
Dennison utilized factor analysis in his 1967 book, Why Growth Rates Differ: The Experience of Several Postwar Western Countries. It is customarily referred to as the Danielson model. In this model, two questions arise:
The first question is: the contribution of each factor to economic growth can be calculated by the model, but what are the reasons (factors) that convert the potential productivity of these factors into real productivity
The second question is: after calculating the factors that should be calculated, there is still a "residual" or "residual value", so-called "residual spillover", and the "residual value" can be calculated by the model, so-called "residual value", so-called "residual value". The second question is: after calculating the factors that should be calculated, there are still "surplus" or "residual values", the so-called "surplus overflow", to which these "surplus values" should be attributed
And Kuznets emphasized that a high rate of change in the structure of demand has a great impact on the high rate of transformation of the structure of production in the growth of the modern economy. It leads to technological innovations and inventions for the creation of new products, promotes the formation and development of new industries, and ultimately contributes to the rate of growth and development of the modern economy.
(5) New Growth Theory School
The main theories are Romer's "incremental economic growth model"; Lucas's "specialized human capital accumulation growth model"; Boyd's "dynamic consortium capital growth model"; Arwin Young's "innovation and limited learning-by-doing model" and so on. These theories not only introduce the factors of knowledge and human capital into the economic growth model, what is more noteworthy is that the new growth theory recognizes the important influence of institutions and policies on economic growth, and summarizes a set of policies to promote economic development, such as supporting education; stimulating the investment of physical capital; protecting intellectual property rights; supporting the work of research and development; implementing international trade policies that are conducive to the formation of new ideas and their transmission worldwide; avoiding the government's influence in the formation and transmission of new ideas; and avoiding the government's interference in the development of new ideas and their transmission to the world. international trade policies; avoiding major government distortions in the marketplace; etc.
(6) Evolution of the Division of Labor
This school of thought, represented by Yang Xiaokai, firstly pointed out the inherent shortcomings of neoclassical microeconomics, that is to say, it treats the industrial structure or division of labor of the society as a fixed and unchanging factor, and then researches the optimal allocation of resources therein, and then constructs a model of the evolution of the division of labor to explain the economic growth. They argued that when people are inexperienced, productivity is low, so they cannot afford to pay transaction costs, and they have no choice but to become self-sufficient. Through learning by doing, productivity increases and transaction costs become affordable, so that people begin to choose higher levels of division of labor and specialization. This learning through specialization accelerates the rate of learning, which in turn allows for higher transaction costs to be paid. This positive feedback (virtuous circle) causes the division of labor to evolve spontaneously. The division of labor increases productivity precisely because specialization creates a sort of information asymmetry, where the seller knows a lot about what he produces and the buyer knows very little.
Yang et al.'s theoretical model of the evolution of the division of labor gives us two insights:
Improvement 1: The promotion of the division of labor and trade, and the development of knowledge, are essential to economic growth and development.
The second lesson is that institutional innovation in a country should be directed towards promoting the division of labor, lowering transaction costs and increasing transaction efficiency.
(7) "Anti-Growth" or "Zero-Growth" School
The economists represented by Meadows believe that the cost of economic growth and development is too high for human beings, and therefore advocate anti-growth or skepticism about the value of growth; Meadows connects the five major factors, such as population growth, food supply, capital investment, environmental pollution, and energy consumption, as a "feedback loop," and establishes the "End of the World Model. The "End of the World Model". In order to avoid the end of the world, it is necessary to make the main economic growth factors to realize "zero growth", therefore, the theory is called "growth limit theory" or "zero growth theory".
Second, the main arguments of the new school of institutional economics
1. North's viewpoint
(1) The relationship between institutions and economic growth and development
The new school of institutional economics has made a creative contribution to institutions and economic development is North. His central thesis on the theory of economic growth and development is succinct, namely, that the key to economic growth and development is the institutional factor, that an effective system providing appropriate individual incentives is the decisive factor in promoting economic growth, and that among the institutional factors, the role of property relations is the most important. This is based on the fact that, in traditional economics, the functioning of markets is assumed to be characterized by perfect information, clearly defined property rights conditions and zero-cost processes. The process of people's transactions in the market is filtered down to the operation of the price mechanism alone, and even the cost of searching for information in order to conclude a transaction does not exist. Under the analytical logic of this model, other "institutions" and "organizations", which coordinate the organization and organization of economic activities, are regarded as insignificant. If the traditional economic analysis can not explain the phenomenon of a large increase in the productivity of the maritime transportation industry from 1600 to 1850, without much technological progress, the institutional factors can not be ignored. Thus, institutional factors cannot be ignored. Institutions are effective in defining the interrelationships between transacting agents through a set of rules, reducing uncertainty and transaction costs in the environment, thereby protecting property rights, enhancing productive activities, and realizing the potential benefits of transactional activities.
North points out that the institutional environment is a set of basic political, social, and legal rules for determining production, exchange, and distribution, and that institutional arrangements are the rules that govern the way in which economic units may cooperate and compete with each other, whereas the system itself is "a set of rules, which follow the requirements and ethical norms of behavior, and which regulate the behavior of the individual." In other words, a system, unlike an institution, is a set of rules, compliance procedures and moral and ethical norms of behavior that have been developed to regulate the behavior of individuals who seek to maximize the benefits of the subject's well-being or utility. The institutional framework constrains people's choice sets. Since these rules not only create the system of incentives that guides and determines economic activity, but also determine the basis of social welfare and income distribution, the institutional structure statically determines the rate of growth of an economic entity and its intellectual and technological outlets. According to North: Many economists categorize innovation, economies of scale, education, capital accumulation and knowledge advancement as the causes of economic growth, but in fact it is economic growth itself. The real cause of growth is institutional change. Institutional change is the process of moving from equilibrium to disequilibrium and back to equilibrium. When factors prevent potential external profits from being realized under existing institutional arrangements, new institutions may be created to reduce costs. He argued that economic growth does not simply occur unless the existing economic organization or institutional arrangements are efficient. Further, North analyzed the supply and demand for institutions, and institutional equilibrium is reached when the supply and demand for institutions coincide. The condition for the realization of this system equilibrium is that the marginal benefit of the system supplier is equal to the marginal cost, i.e., MR=MC. Accordingly, North proposed that the basic (ideal) criterion or principle for the construction of an efficient new system is to make the rate of return of the individual and the rate of return of the society under the new mechanism (system) equal or close to each other.
(2) The Role of the State in Institutional Change
The state is not "neutral", it determines the structure of property rights, and economic growth depends on clear property rights, but under technological and existing organizational constraints, property rights are extremely costly to innovate, adjudicate, and exercise, so the state emerges as a low-cost institutional arrangement for providing property rights protection and coercion to maintain economic growth and development, and is ultimately responsible for the efficiency of the property rights structure that results in economic growth, development, recession or stagnation.
(3) Ideological Theory
The characteristics of ideology are threefold:
First, ideology is the saving mechanism through which people recognize their environment and reduce the cost of "trial and error".
Second, ideology is often intertwined with an individual's moral and ethical assessment of what is fair and just in the way he or she views the world, which means that choices are sometimes made between opposing theories and ideologies. For example, the evaluation of the fairness of income distribution.
Thirdly, when people's original concepts or experiences do not match their ideology, they try to change their ideology in order to develop a new set of rational choices that are more suitable to their concepts or experiences.
Thus, ideology is another important factor influencing institutional arrangements and economic change.
2. Recent research by the Center for International Economic Growth (CIEG) suggests that:
(1) Developing countries in general are faced with the dilemma of sustaining economic growth and improving economic efficiency, and the root causes of the problem lie in the underlying institutional framework, e.g., rent seeking.
(2) Institutional arrangements are the main engine of economic development. First, institutions expand human choices, i.e., the goals of economic development, by influencing the availability of information and resources, shaping power, and establishing the basic plan for social transactions. Second, the effectiveness of institutions in their efforts to "correct prices", i.e. their fundamental and long-term contribution to economic development. Thirdly, while technological innovation drives economic development, in developing countries technological innovation depends on institutional arrangements that promote innovation, define property rights and contractual relationships or share external risks.
(3) In terms of institutional supply and demand, the demand for institutional innovation arises from the increase in inefficiencies in the economy, technological change, market characteristics, and the legislative order that establishes the ways in which individuals and groups can protect their own interests; while the supply of institutions relies on the legislative order, the costs of institutional design, and the knowledge base for finding alternative targets. Therefore, developing countries must establish an institutional environment centered on the legislative order that shapes market forces to drive innovation.
(4) In developing countries with underdeveloped market economies, the fundamental problem is the lack of an institutional context for the development of a market economy. Such as law and order, stable morality, the definition of property rights, the supply of human capital, the provision of public **** goods, regulations governing transactions and risk sharing. Therefore, in developing countries, how to make the government play a "leading" role, to develop a set of open, transparent rules and regulations, to prevent rent-seeking, the use of power for personal gain and fraud, to create a fair and reasonable institutional environment for the operation of the market economy, is to realize the smooth transition of the market economy and the efficient functioning of the indispensable conditions.
Three brief comments and questions
1. North puts the institutional factor into the framework of economic growth, takes the system as an endogenous variable of economic growth, applies the modern theory of property rights to explain the relationship between the institutional change and economic growth, and points out that the institutional change is one of the important factors of economic growth. He made the study and analysis of institutions more mature and contributed to the development of economics.
2. The application of the methodology of the New School of Institutional Economics has become more and more widespread, and many economists who were originally unconcerned about institutions have widely absorbed and utilized the analytical methodology of the New School of Institutional Economics, and generally believe that, in solving the problems of economic development, we should not only pay attention to the purely economic factors such as the accumulation of capital, the introduction of technology, the mobilization of capital, the optimization of the industrial structure, the improvement of employment, and so on, but should focus on the role of institutional factors in economic growth, and should pay attention to the importance of institutional factors in economic growth. We should focus on the role of institutional factors in promoting or hindering economic growth.
3. The inclusion of institutional factors in the study of economic growth and development issues within the scope of the study has greatly expanded the research horizons of economic development issues, and the object of study has shifted from the previous capitalist development of small and medium-sized countries or regions to the development of large countries.
4. A few issues that should be discussed in depth
(1) In many people's view, the system is still a very abstract concept, how to further quantify the institutional factors.
(2) Since institutional change is very important in economic development, how to speed up the pace of institutional change to promote economic development.
(3) In the age of information technology, information has become very easy to obtain, so will the status of transaction costs, one of the theoretical cornerstones of the new institutional economics school, be shaken.
Many of the ideas of the New School of Institutional Economics have become more and more accepted and their influence is growing, but these questions are still troubling the New School of Institutional Economics and its followers and need to be further explored.
References
[1][U.S.] Douglas C. North, translated by Chen Yu, Luo Huaping: Structure and Change in Economic History [M], Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, 1991
[2][U.S.] Coase, North, etc.: Property, Property Rights, and Institutional Change [M], Shanghai Sanlian Bookstore, 1991
[3] The International Economic Center for International Economic Growth V Ostrom and D Feeney, H Pichter, edited by Wang Cheng and other translators: Institutional Analysis and Rethinking Development: Problems and Options, The Commercial Press, 1992
[4]Zhang Yuyan: Economic Development and Institutional Choice: An Economic Analysis of Institutions [M], People's University of China Publishing House, 1992
[5]Justin Yifu Lin: Re-examining the Institutions, Technologies, and China's Forestry Development [M], Peking University Press, 2000
[6] Lu Xianxiang, The New Institutional Economics of the West [M], China Development Press, 1999
[7] Li Yue, Industrial Economics [M], People's University of China Publishing House, 1998
[8] Rostow, Economics of Takeoff into Sustained Growth [M]. [M], Sichuan People's Publishing House, 1988
[9]Kuznets: The Economic Growth of All Countries [M], Commercial Press, 1985
Literature Review Sample No.2
Review and Evaluation of the Theoretical Schools of Economic Globalization
Abstract: Our country has joined the WTO, and the vast majority of enterprises, which are at a disadvantaged position in the fiercely competitive market, have been studying economic globalization. For the majority of enterprises in China, it is very urgent and necessary to study the economic globalization issue. In this paper, we synthesize the economic globalization theories of the major schools since the 18th century, and briefly evaluate them, and put forward our views, so as to provide references for the government's macro-guidance of the enterprises' micro-decision-making as well as theoretical researches.
Keywords: economic globalization/world market/international trade/economic integration
Economic globalization is not shifted by human will, with the acceleration of the process of international economic integration, the current economic globalization is being developed at a deep level. China has joined the WTO, on the one hand, thousands of multinational corporations flocked to China: China is becoming part of the world market; on the other hand, hundreds of Chinese enterprises out of the country: China has gradually integrated into the world economy as a large family. But the vast majority of enterprises in China in the fierce competition in the international market at a disadvantage, the government is also difficult to recognize the complexity of the international market, therefore, the study of the theory of economic globalization has been very urgent and necessary.
A review of the theory of economic globalization
The theory of economic globalization in the West began in Britain during the industrial revolution, in the past 200 years, economists from different schools of thought from different perspectives, position of economic globalization to do a comprehensive, in-depth research, has achieved fruitful results, this paper according to the different periods, different nature, different content will be summarized as follows. The following schools of thought:
(I) Marxist classic economists' theory of economic globalization
1. Marx and Engels' idea of economic globalization. We can see Marx's initial understanding of economic globalization in Marx's analysis and formulation of the definition and characteristics of "world history" in his 1845 book "The German Ideology" (abbreviated to Marx and Engels, hereinafter referred to as "the German Ideology"). He says: "This development of the productive forces (with which the world-historical rather than the territorial existence of men has at the same time become empirical) is an absolutely necessary practical prerequisite, also because without it there would be nothing but the generalization of poverty, of extreme poverty; and in the case of extreme poverty it is necessary that the struggle for the necessities of life should be resumed. the struggle for the necessities of life would be resumed, that is to say, the whole of what is old and dirty would be revived. Secondly, this development of the productive forces is a necessary practical prerequisite because it is only with this generalized development of the productive forces that universal interaction of people can be established; universal interaction which, on the one hand, can produce the simultaneous existence of 'propertyless' masses among all peoples (universal competition) making each people dependent on the transformations of the others; and lastly, the transformation of the territorial individual into the world's historical and empirically universal individual is replaced..." (Note: Marx, Engels. The Complete Works of Marx and Engels [M]. Volume I, People's Publishing House, 1995, 86.) In his book, Principles of ****productivism, Engels states, "The establishment of the world market by great industry alone has so closely connected the peoples of the globe, and especially the peoples of the civilized nations, with one another, that the people of each nation are affected by the events of the other..." (Note: Marx, Engels. The Complete Works of Marx and Engels [M]. Volume 4, People's Publishing House, 1972, 368.) It can be seen that, initially, Marx put economic globalization in the "world history", and the development of productive forces led to the universal interaction of all peoples, and close contact with each other is the main content of world history. Engels, on the other hand, believed that the capitalist industry is the fundamental cause of economic globalization, and that the most fundamental content and basis of economic globalization is the worldwide material production and consumption linked by the world market. In 1848, Mann pointed out in his co-authored **** Proletarian Manifesto that "the bourgeoisie, by opening up the world market, has made the production and consumption of all the countries world-wide. ...... The local national self-sufficiency and isolation of the past have been replaced by the mutual intercourse and interdependence of all nationalities in every respect. ...... With the realization of the freedom of trade and the establishment of the world market, with the convergence of industrial production and of the living conditions which go with it, the bourgeoisie has become a world-class class, with the opening up of the world market, making all national production and consumption world-wide. With the realization of freedom of trade and the establishment of the world market, with the convergence of industrial production and the conditions of life which go with it, national isolation and antagonism among peoples are increasingly disappearing..." (Note: Marx, Engels. The Complete Works of Marx and Engels [M]. (Note: Marx, Engels. The Complete Works of Marx and Engels [M]. Volume I, People's Publishing House, 1995, 267.) In the view of Marx and Engels, only the formation of the world market on the basis of the extensive division of labor among various regions and nationalities means that the state of development in which various regions and nationalities are in relative isolation has been eliminated fundamentally, and thus the interdependent, mutually constraining and unified world market will be formed ultimately; at the same time, along with the formation of the world market, the interaction of other aspects among regions and nationalities will inevitably develop as a result. At the same time, with the formation of the world market, other aspects of interaction between regions and peoples will inevitably develop. From this, we can see that Marx recognized the relationship between economic globalization and the national problem, international division of labor, and realized the non-economic impact of economic globalization. In his monumental work "Capital", Marx discussed in more detail the globalization of production and capital and their effects. He said: "Now all foreign investments have taken the form of shares...", (Note: Marx. Capital [M]. Volume III, People's Publishing House, 1975, 1030.) "The establishment of international cartels, such as the one set up by Britain and Germany in the production of iron, has led to a rapid increase in the iron production of both countries. ......" (Note: Marx. Capital [M]. Volume III, People's Publishing House, 1975, 495.). It can be seen that Marx has fully recognized the nature and role of the cartel as the driving body of economic globalization: the early form of transnational corporations. Later on, he pointed out that "there are two kinds of purposes for the export of capital, one is export as a means of payment or purchase, and the other is export for the purpose of investment..." (Note: Marx. Capital [M]. Volume III, People's Publishing House, 1975, 653.) "Capital is exported abroad ...... because he is able to use it abroad at a higher rate of profit." (Note: Marx. Capital [M]. Volume III, People's Publishing House, 1975, 285.) "The globalization of production has led to the elimination of the old national industries and their replacement by industries using raw materials from all the countries of the world ...... The 'national boundaries' of production are thus blurred." (Note: Marx. Capital [M]. (Note: Marx. Capital [M]. Volume I, People's Publishing House, 1975, 497.) From the above discussion, we can see that Mann not only found the main body of economic globalization - transnational corporations, analyzed the specific mode of operation of economic globalization: the globalization of production and the globalization of the operation of capital (the globalization of commodity capital, borrowing capital, industrial capital), but also pointed out that The fundamental driving force of economic globalization is the pursuit of profit and the impact of economic globalization on national industries.
2. The idea of economic globalization of modern Western Marxist economists. Contemporary Western Marxist economists, taking into account the actual development of the contemporary capitalist economy, have discussed the new features of the global development of the capitalist economy and the formation of the world economic pattern linked to the development of economic globalization, as well as its impact on the economic development of developing countries. In his Political Analysis of Growth, Baran argues that the root cause of the economic backwardness of the underdeveloped countries is the penetration of foreign capitalism (i.e., the globalization of the capitalist economy), which, on the one hand, seizes a large portion of the surplus of production and creates conditions for the accelerated development of capitalism in the developed countries; on the other hand,