Chapter 1 the earth in the universe
1, the level of celestial system: total galaxy-Milky Way galaxy (extragalactic galaxy)-solar system-earth-moon system.
2. Conditions for the existence of life on the earth: ① stable sunlight; (2) a safe cosmic environment; ③ Due to the moderate distance between the sun and the earth, the surface temperature is suitable (average temperature 15 degrees); ④ Due to the moderate mass and volume of the earth, the earth can attract the atmosphere to form an atmosphere (mainly nitrogen and oxygen); ⑤ Liquid water forms and exists.
3, the influence of solar activity on the earth:
(1) Signs of solar activity: sunspots and flares.
(2) Influence: it affects the ionosphere and interferes with radio short-wave communication; Produce "magnetic storm" phenomenon and "aurora" phenomenon; The climate that affects the earth.
4, the geographical significance of the earth's rotation:
① Alternation of day and night: the dividing line between the day hemisphere and the night hemisphere-the ending line (circle)-intersects the equator at 6 o'clock and 18 o'clock respectively-the height of the sun is 0 degrees-the plane where the morning circle is located is perpendicular to the sunlight;
② Local time difference: it is early in the east and late in the west, and the longitude changes every 15 degrees 1 hour.
(3) Deviation of objects moving horizontally along the surface: not biased on the equator, right biased in the northern hemisphere and left biased in the southern hemisphere. The deflection force increases with the latitude.
5, the geographical significance of the revolution of the earth:
(1) Variation of day and night length:
(1) in the northern hemisphere summer, the sun shines directly into the northern hemisphere, and the days are long and the nights are short in all latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The higher the latitude, the longer the day and the shorter the night. Summer Solstice-The day length at all latitudes in the northern hemisphere reaches the maximum in a year, and extreme days appear in the Arctic Circle and its northern region. (2) In the northern hemisphere winter, the sun shines directly in the southern hemisphere, and the nights are long and the days are short in all latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The higher the latitude, the longer the night and the shorter the day. Winter solstice-the length of each latitude in the northern hemisphere reaches the minimum in a year, and the Arctic Circle and its northern region are extremely night. ③ At the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox, the sun shines directly on the equator, and the length of day and night is the same all over the world, each being 12 hour.
④ The equator is equally divided day and night throughout the year. The situation in the southern hemisphere is opposite to that in the northern hemisphere.
(2) the change of the sun height at noon:
At the same time, at noon, the height of the sun decreases from the direct point of the sun to the north and south sides. From summer solstice, the sun shines directly on the Tropic of Cancer, and at noon, the height of the sun decreases from the Tropic of Cancer to the north and south sides. At this time, the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer and its north reaches the maximum and the latitude of the southern hemisphere reaches the minimum in a year. On the solstice of winter, the sun shines directly on the tropic of Capricorn, and the height of the sun decreases from the tropic of Capricorn to the north and south at noon. At this time, the tropic of Capricorn and its south latitude reach the maximum in a year, and the latitude in the northern hemisphere reaches the minimum. At the vernal equinox and autumnal equinox, the sun shines directly at the equator, and the height of the sun decreases from the equator to the poles at noon.
(3) the change of four seasons (the length of day and night and the height of the sun at noon change with the seasons, so that the solar radiation has the law of seasonal change, forming four seasons). In the northern hemisphere, the seasons are divided into spring in March, April and May, summer in June, July and August, autumn in September, 10 and 1 1.
6. The spherical structure of the earth is divided into inner sphere and outer sphere by the boundary of the surface.
(1) According to the characteristics of seismic waves (P wave and S wave), the lithosphere inside the earth is divided into three lithospheres: crust, mantle and core. The crustal materials are mainly composed of rocks (magmatic rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic rocks), the upper mantle asthenosphere is the source of magma, and the core is mainly composed of iron and nickel.
(2) Outer space: atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere.
Chapter II Material Movement and Energy Exchange in Natural Geographical Environment
1. rocks can be divided into three categories: ① magmatic rocks (formed by magma rising and cooling); ② Sedimentary rocks (formed by external weathering, erosion, transportation, accumulation and consolidation); ③ Metamorphic rocks (metamorphism). From magma to the formation of various rocks, three kinds of rocks can be transformed into each other, and then to the formation of new magma. This movement and change process constitutes the material cycle of the earth's crust.
2. Internal and external force factors (geological action) of surface morphology change:
(1) The internal energy comes from the earth itself, mainly the heat energy inside the earth, which is manifested as crustal movement, magmatic activity and metamorphism. Resulting in uneven surface. The types of geological structures are fold (anticline and syncline) and fault (horst and graben).
(2) External force-energy comes from outside the earth, mainly solar energy and gravity. Make uneven surfaces tend to be flat. It is characterized by weathering, erosion, transportation, accumulation and consolidation diagenesis. Flowing water erosion landform (V-shaped valley) and accumulation landform (alluvial fan, alluvial plain and delta); Wind erosion landform (wind erosion depression, mushrooms), aeolian landform (sand dunes).
3. Names of six plates: Asia-Europe plate, Africa plate, Indian Ocean plate, Pacific plate, America plate and Antarctica plate. Generally speaking, the crust inside the plate is relatively stable, and the junction of the two plates is a relatively active zone of the crust, and volcanoes and earthquakes are also concentrated at the junction of the plates. Growth boundary-where plates crack, rifts and oceans often form. Extinction boundary-where plates collide, mountains and trenches often form.
4. Atmospheric heating process: solar radiation (short wave), atmospheric attenuation, ground warming, ground radiation (long wave), atmospheric warming, atmospheric radiation (long wave) and atmospheric reverse radiation (insulation).
(1) Weakening effect of atmosphere on solar radiation: ① Absorption: selectivity, ozone absorbs ultraviolet rays, and water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb infrared rays. Very little absorption of visible light. ② Reflection: Clouds and dust with larger particles. The reflection of clouds is the most important. (3) Scattering: Air molecules or tiny dust prevent some solar radiation from reaching the ground.
(2) Heat insulation effect of the atmosphere on the ground: the atmosphere absorbs ground radiation and produces atmospheric inverse radiation (atmospheric radiation points to the ground), which returns some heat to the ground. The thicker the clouds, the stronger the atmospheric inverse radiation.
5. There are 7 pressure zones (alternating high and low pressure distribution) and 6 wind zones near the earth's surface.
(1) Low latitude circulation:
① equatorial low pressure area: due to the formation of thermal action, the airflow converges and rises, which is easy to form clouds and cause rainfall, thus forming a rain area. Controlled all the year round, forming a tropical rainforest climate (Amazon Plain, Congo Basin, Malaysia Islands in Southeast Asia).
(2) Subtropical high pressure area: due to the dynamic action, the airflow accumulates and sinks above 30 degrees latitude, forming a rainless area (except the East Asian monsoon area), and the areas controlled by it all the year round form a tropical desert climate (Sahara desert in North Africa, West Asia desert, deserts in North America and the United States, deserts in South America and Chile, deserts in western Peru and deserts in Australia).
(3) Trade wind zone: the airflow blowing from subtropical high to equatorial low becomes northeast trade wind in the northern hemisphere and southeast trade wind in the southern hemisphere.
(2) Mid-latitude circulation:
④ Sub-polar low pressure area: It is formed by the rising of warm air flow at low latitude and cold air flow at high latitude. Form a temperate and rainy zone.
⑤ Mid-latitude westerly belt: The airflow blowing from subtropical high to subtropical low pressure belt becomes southwest wind in the northern hemisphere and northwest wind in the southern hemisphere, which is customarily called westerly wind. Its perennial controlled area forms a temperate maritime climate on the west coast of the mainland. (Western Europe, western North America, such as Vancouver, Canada, the west side of the Andes at the southern tip of South America, the southern tip of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, etc. )
(3) High latitude circulation:
⑥ Polar high pressure area: Due to the formation of thermal action, cold air sinks, forming a less rainy area. However, due to the low temperature and low evaporation in the polar region, the polar region belongs to the region where precipitation is greater than evaporation and belongs to the humid region.
⑦ Polar easterly wind: The airflow blowing from the polar high pressure belt to the sub-polar low pressure belt turns right into northeast wind in the northern hemisphere and left into southeast wind in the southern hemisphere under the action of geostrophic bias current.
(4) The movement of pressure belt and wind belt: the reason of delta movement: it moves with the movement of the direct point of the sun. △ Movement direction: As far as the northern hemisphere is concerned, it generally moves northward in summer and southward in winter.
(5) Climate types formed by single pressure belt or wind belt: tropical rain forest climate (equatorial low pressure belt), tropical desert climate (subtropical high pressure belt) and temperate maritime climate (mid-latitude westerly belt).
(6) Climate types formed by the movement of pressure belt and wind belt: savanna climate (controlled by equatorial low pressure belt in summer and low latitude trade wind belt in winter), Mediterranean climate (controlled by subtropical high pressure belt in summer and mid-latitude westerly belt in winter).
6. Common weather systems: frontal system (cold front, warm front, quasi-static front), cyclone (low pressure), anticyclone (high pressure) and frontal cyclone. Cyclone is a low pressure, and the low pressure system often appears a trough extending in a certain direction along the center in the actual atmosphere, and a frontal system is formed on the trough. Frontal and cyclone are a whole (no high pressure system).
7. Hydrological cycle
(1) types: land-sea circulation (large-scale circulation), land circulation (small water) and ocean circulation (maximum water).
(2) Name of each link: evaporation, precipitation, water vapor transport, surface runoff, underground runoff, infiltration and plant transpiration.
(3) Significance: make the land moisture constantly replenished and updated, and make the water resources renewable; Shaping surface morphology; Contact the four major circles.
8. Ocean currents:
(1) type: it can be divided into wind current, density current and compensation current according to the causes; According to the nature, there are warm current and cold current.
(2) Distribution: △ The mid-low latitude-ocean circulation centered on the subtropical zone flows clockwise in the northern hemisphere (consistent with the anticyclone direction in the southern hemisphere) and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere (consistent with the anticyclone direction in the southern hemisphere). △ Middle and high latitudes (mainly referring to the northern hemisphere)-ocean circulation centered on the sub-polar region. △ west wind drift in the southern hemisphere, the most powerful cold current in the world. △ North Indian Ocean monsoon current-flows from west to east in summer and from east to west in winter (summer is against winter).
(3) Impact: ① Impact on climate: Warm current plays a role in warming and humidifying (the formation of maritime climate in Western Europe benefits from the warm current in the North Atlantic); The cold current can reduce temperature and humidity (Victoria Desert on the west coast of Australia and Atacama Desert on the Pacific coast of Peru are both related to the cold current in Western Australia and Peru).
(2) Impact on marine life-distribution of fishing grounds: The intersection of cold current and warm current brings rich and varied bait to fish.
△ Hokkaido Fishing Ground-the meeting point of Japanese warm current and Thousand Island cold current. △ Newfoundland Fishing Ground-the intersection of Labrador cold current and Gulf of Mexico warm current. △ Beihai Fishing Ground-formed by the confluence of the warm current of the North Atlantic Ocean and the cold water south of high latitude. △ Peru Fishing Ground-The rise of the compensation current floods the deep sea water, brings silicate in the deep sea, and makes plankton multiply in large numbers. The plankton is the bait for fish.
(3) Impact on marine pollution: it is conducive to the diffusion of pollutants and speeds up the purification; But it also expands the scope of pollutants.
④ Impact on maritime transportation: downstream-fast sailing speed; Countercurrent-slow sailing.
Chapter III Holiness and Regional Differences of Geographical Environment
1. Geographical environment includes natural geographical environment and human geographical environment. Physical geographical elements include climate, hydrology, landform, biology, soil and other elements.
(1) Climate change is constantly transforming the hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere on the earth. In the final analysis, the role of organisms in the geographical environment is due to the photosynthesis of green plants.
(2) The role of biology in the formation of geographical environment: connecting the organic world with the inorganic world and promoting the migration of chemical elements; Transform the atmosphere, so that the original atmosphere gradually evolves into the present atmosphere; Reforming hydrosphere to influence the composition of water; Transforming the lithosphere, promoting the weathering of rocks and the formation of soil have caused profound changes in the geographical environment.
Environment created living things, and living things created the present environment. Therefore, biology is a creature of geographical environment and also a shaper of geographical environment.
(3) The elements of geographical environment are interrelated, restricted and infiltrated, which constitutes the integrity of geographical environment. For example, the northwest inland-because it is far away from the sea, it is difficult to reach the humid airflow of the ocean, resulting in a dry continental climate-rivers are underdeveloped, mostly inland rivers-with dry climate, weak running water, obvious physical weathering and wind power, forming large Gobi and desert, sparse vegetation, poor soil development and low organic matter content.
2. The regional differentiation law of geographical environment:
(1) Regional differentiation (latitude zonality) from the equator to the poles: affected by the decreasing solar radiation from the equator to the poles-the natural belt changes regularly along the latitude (north-south) direction, and this differentiation is based on heat. For example, there is a tropical rain forest belt near the equator, and its two sides are tropical grassland belt and tropical desert belt with the increase of latitude.
(2) Regional differentiation from coastal to inland (longitude zonality): Affected by the distribution of land and sea, natural landscapes and natural belts have regular regional differentiation from coastal to inland, which is based on moisture. For example, mid-latitude areas (especially those in the northern hemisphere) appear from the coast to the inland: forest belt-grassland belt-desert belt.
(3) Vertical regional differentiation of mountainous areas: In mountainous areas, with the change of altitude, the hydrothermal conditions from the foot of the mountain to the top of the mountain are very different, thus forming a vertical natural zone. For example, in the mountainous area near the equator, the natural belt seen from the foot of the mountain to the top of the mountain is similar to the horizontal natural belt from the equator to the poles.
Chapter IV Influence of Natural Environment on Human Activities
1. The relationship between the formation of settlements and geographical environment can be reflected from the form: in the plain area, the terrain is relatively complete, open and flat, and the settlements are round or irregular polygons with large scale; Mountain settlements are distributed in river valleys or relatively open lowlands. For example, the urban distribution of Fenhe River and Weihe River basins in China. Most big cities in the world are located on the plains. Location advantages of plain area: flat terrain, fertile soil, convenient farming, favorable transportation and saving construction investment. Some plains are not suitable for urban development. For example, in the tropics, the lowlands are sultry, and cities are mostly distributed in the plateau. The most famous is Brazil, whose cities are not distributed on the Amazon plain, but on the Brazilian plateau.
2. The influence of topography on the distribution of traffic lines: Highway route selection avoids unfavorable topography, and the density of traffic lines is relatively high in flat areas (low cost and small amount of work), and relatively low in mountainous and hilly areas (high cost and large amount of work).
3. Global warming is beneficial to agricultural production: the temperature rises the most in high latitudes, the crop growth period is prolonged and the yield is increased; Disadvantages to agricultural production: In mid-latitude semi-humid and semi-arid areas, if the precipitation is constant, warming will accelerate land evaporation, reduce soil moisture and lead to a decline in crop yield. It also has a certain impact on industrial production. Rising temperature will reduce the heating energy consumption in high latitudes and obviously increase the cooling energy consumption in low latitudes.
4. Definition of natural resources: materials and energy directly obtained by human beings from nature for production and life. It includes climate resources, land resources, water resources, biological resources and mineral resources. Natural resources are the material basis of human civilization and social progress. For example, energy utilization has a great impetus to the development of productive forces. △ firewood is the main energy source-the level of social productivity is very low. △/kloc-In the 0/8th century, coal was the main energy source-social productivity was greatly improved. After 1950s, oil was the main energy source, which greatly promoted the development of production.
5. Common natural disasters include floods, droughts, typhoons, rainstorms, cold waves, sandstorms, snowstorms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides and mudslides. Understand their main causes and hazards.