The development of China cuisine can be roughly divided into four periods: Pre-Qin, Han, Wei and Six Dynasties, Sui, Tang, Song and Yuan Dynasties and Ming and Qing Dynasties.
Pre-Qin period
This refers to the historical period before the Qin Dynasty, that is, from the date of the birth of cooking to the reunification of China by Qin Shihuang in 221 A.D., * * * about 78 years. This is the initial period of China's cooking, which includes three distinctive development stages: Neolithic Age (about 6 years), Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties (about 13 years) and Spring and Autumn Period and Warring States Period (about 5 years).
(1) Cooking in the Neolithic Age
Since there are no characters in the Neolithic Age, the general situation of cooking evolution can only be inferred by the unearthed cultural relics, myths and legends and the historical records of later generations. Its general outline is as follows:
1. Food raw materials are mostly fresh water and wild animals from fishing and hunting, and there are domesticated livestock and collected trial-planted grains of Amomum tsao-ko, which are not abundant. Condiments are mainly coarse salt, but also plums, bitter fruits, herbs and wild honey. Food sources vary from place to place.
2. Cooking utensils are ceramic pots, pans, kettles, pots, ground stoves, brick stoves and stone stoves; The fuel is still firewood; There are also rough bowls, bowls, plates and pots as utensils, and the cooking method is extensive by paying equal attention to fire roasting, stone burning and steaming. As for the dishes, they are also quite humble, and the best taste is nothing more than the legendary "pheasant soup" (wild chicken soup) cooked by Peng Zu (Peng Keng) for Yaodi.
3. At this time, the ancestors cooked only for survival; Their understanding of the relationship between food and drink and health is hazy. However, judging from the myths and legends such as Suiren's teaching people to use fire, Chaochao's teaching people to build houses, Fu Xishi's teaching people to tame animals, Shennong's teaching people to farm, Xuanyuan's teaching people's culture and so on, the cooking activities of our ancestors have the nature of civilization and enlightenment.
4. In terms of food ceremony, there are frequent sacrifices, and they often please ghosts and gods with food and seek their shelter. Began to have the original aesthetic consciousness of diet, such as the beautification of food containers, singing and jumping during feasting, etc. This is the precursor of the banquet of later generations, and it is also an important part of their social entertainment life. In a word, Neolithic cooking is like a newborn baby, which is weak, naive and full of vitality, laying a good foundation for the prosperity of food civilization in Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties.
(II) Cooking in Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties
Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties belong to a slave society in the history of social development, and they are also the "menarche" in the history of cooking development in China. It has made breakthroughs in many aspects and has a far-reaching impact on future generations.
1. Cooking materials have increased significantly, and they are used to being named after "Five". Such as "five grains" (millet, millet, wheat, rice, hemp seed), "five vegetables" (sunflower, hopus, head, onion and leek), "five animals" (cattle, sheep, pigs, dogs and chickens) and "five fruits" (jujube, plum, chestnut, leek). "Five Grains" is sometimes written as "Six Grains" and "Hundred Grains". In short, raw materials can be named as "Five", which shows that food resources were abundant at that time, artificially cultivated raw materials became the main body, and these raw materials were among the best, and some experience was accumulated in material selection.
2. The cooking and drinking utensils were innovated, and the thin and exquisite bronze tableware was put on the cooking stage. There are more than 4, Shang and Zhou bronzes unearthed in China, most of which are cooking utensils. The appearance of bronze eating utensils not only limited to heat transfer, but also improved the cooking efficiency and food quality, and also showed etiquette and decorated banquets, showing the special temperament of slave owners and nobles' food culture.
3. The quality of dishes has improved rapidly, and the famous "Eight Treasures of the Zhou Dynasty" has been introduced. Due to the enrichment of raw materials and the improvement of cookware, the cooking technology has made great progress at this time. On the one hand, rice, porridge, cakes, snacks and other food varieties are at the beginning of the wind, and there are as many as 1 kinds of meat sauce products and soup dishes, and the variety of colors has greatly increased; On the other hand, more than 1 methods such as baking, stewing, roasting, boiling, steaming and pickling can be better used to cook high-grade dishes such as bear's paw, suckling pig, turtle and swan, resulting in far-reaching "Eight Treasures of Zhou Dynasty". "Eight Treasures of the Zhou Dynasty", also called "Eight Treasures for Precious Use", is a feast specially prepared for the Emperor of Zhou. It consists of 2 meals and 6 dishes, and its specific names are: "Chunkao" (rice with meat sauce), "Chunmu" (millet with meat sauce), "Cannibal" (stewed suckling pig with simmering roast), "Cannibal" (stewed ewe lamb with simmering roast) and "Daozhen" (cooked with cattle, sheep and deer) After the introduction of "Eight Treasures of Zhou Dynasty", successive dynasties scrambled to follow suit. "Eight treasures in the north of the Yuan Dynasty" and "Eight treasures in the heavenly kitchen", "Eight treasures in the ginseng wing" and "Eight treasures in the barbecue" in the Ming and Qing Dynasties, as well as "Eight treasures in the mountain", "Eight treasures in the water", "Eight treasures in the poultry", "Eight treasures in the grass" (mainly referring to precious edible fungi), "Eight treasures in the Shang Dynasty" and "Eight treasures in the grass".
4. New achievements have also been made in the aspects of diet system. For example, since the Xia dynasty, the palace first set up a food officer, equipped with a royal chef, took the first step of combining food and medicine, and attached importance to the diet health care of the empress dowager. This system continued until the late Qing Dynasty. Another example is a banquet, which is also classified according to the level of honour. In addition, among the people, the early catering industry with the combination of slaughtering, brewing and cooking came into being, and the wineries in Daliang, Yancheng, Hanhan, Xianyang, Linzi and Yingdu flourished.
Therefore, the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties made a good start in the cooking history of China, and later generations have the comment that "the art of three generations has been passed down from generation to generation, and the cooking altar has laid a new foundation".
(3) Cooking in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period
The Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period was a turbulent period of transition from a slave society to a feudal society in China. Fighting for years, standing side by side. The war caused frequent population migration, stimulated the rapid development of agricultural production technology, and the academic thought was extremely active. At this time, many new factors appeared in cooking, which attracted the attention of later generations.
1. The main food source is artificially cultivated agricultural products. At this time, due to a large number of reclamation, water conservancy and the use of Niu Geng and iron farm tools, the quantity and quality of agricultural products increased. Not only the game of livestock is served on the plate, but also the fruits, vegetables and grains are listed in the recipe, and attention is paid to the development of aquatic resources. In many areas in the south, fish, shrimp, turtles and mussels are in an important position with pigs, dogs, cattle and sheep, which is unprecedented.
2. In some economically developed areas, iron pots and pans (ancient cookers, with two ears at the bottom, placed on the stove and a steamer on it, used for steaming or cooking) have emerged. Compared with bronze cookers, it is more advanced, which prepares the conditions for the appearance of oil cooking. At the same time, animal fats (lard, butter, sheep oil, dog oil, chicken oil, fish oil, etc.) and condiments (mainly meat sauce and rice vinegar) are also increasing, pepper, ginger, cinnamon and garlic are widely used, and the cooking method and taste of dishes have also changed, and simple cold drinks, honey stains and fried snacks have appeared.
3. After the Zhou Tianzi's menu, a novel Chu Palace banquet was introduced, forming a situation in which the north and the south competed for glory. According to the records in The Songs of Chu, the banquets in Chu Palace include four categories: staple food (4-7 kinds), dishes (8-18 kinds), snacks (2-4 kinds) and drinks (3-4 kinds). Among them, stewed beef tendon, roasted lamb, stewed turtle, stewed swan, cooked wild duck, braised chicken in oil, stewed turtle and steamed herring all reached a high level; Moreover, there are innovations in raw material combination, serving procedure and reception etiquette, which provide a blueprint for later wine banquets.
4. There is a division between North and South flavors, and local dishes are emerging. Among them, the northern cuisine, centered on the present areas of Henan, Qin, Shanxi and Shandong, is active in the Yellow River basin. It takes pigs, dogs, cattle and sheep as the main materials, pays attention to barbecue and cooking, advocates fresh and salty soup. Among them, the southern cuisine, centered on the present Hubei, Hunan, Wu and Yue areas, spreads all over the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River. It is fresh water fish supplemented with game, fresh vegetables mixed with good fruits, and it pays attention to steaming and stewing, with sour and spicy flavors being smooth and sweet, and also likes cold food. This division continued to evolve from two to four in the Han, Wei and Six Dynasties, gradually showing the prototype of the four major cuisines.
5. The cooking theory has made some achievements, and the original taste of Lu Lan and Huangdi Neijing were introduced. "Lu Lan Ben Wei" was later revered? The Bible of Culinary Profession ",compiled by Lv Buwei, the prime minister of Qin in the early Warring States Period. Its main contributions are: correctly pointing out that the nature and taste of animal raw materials are related to their living environment and food sources; This paper emphasizes the role of cooking and seasoning in cooking, introduces some methods, sums up eight standards for the quality inspection of vegetables, and advocates "palatability is precious", and lists the famous local raw materials at that time for chefs to choose. Huangdi Neijing was written one after another by physicians during this period, summarizing the working people's experience in fighting diseases and relying on the dialogue between Huangdi and Qi Bochen. It consists of Su Wen and Ling Shu, with 18 volumes and 162 articles. In addition to systematically expounding the academic theory of traditional Chinese medicine, this book discusses the physiological activities and pathological changes of human body from the aspects of yin and yang, five elements, zang-fu organs (the general term for internal organs of human body in traditional Chinese medicine), meridians (the trunk and branches of qi and blood circulation channels in human body), etiology, pathogenesis (the mechanism of disease occurrence and change), prevention and treatment (the basic rule of treatment), etc., and also discusses the relationship between local food and health according to the natural environment. This paper puts forward the etiology theories of "six evils" (Chinese medicine refers to six kinds of weather, such as wind, cold, heat, dampness, dryness and fire, which make people sick), "seven emotions" (Chinese medicine refers to seven emotions, such as joy, anger, worry, sadness, fear and shock), improper diet, fatigue and internal injuries, and warns people to pay attention to self-adjustment of drinking and physiological functions. These two works have a high starting point and can be classified as "world-class" scientific research achievements 22 years ago. They have drawn a successful conclusion to the cooking in the pre-Qin period.
Qin, Han, Wei and Six Dynasties
Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties started with Qin Shihuang's annexation of six countries in 221 BC, and ended in 589 AD when Emperor Wen of Sui unified the north and the south, and in 81 * *. This period was the early period of China's feudal society, and agriculture, handicrafts, commerce and towns all developed greatly. Communication and foreign exchanges between ethnic groups are also increasingly frequent. In the feudal country where absolutism is centralized, new characteristics of cooking culture are constantly emerging. In the second half of this period, wars were frequent, the regime was divided, the regime was changed quickly, the ruling class was drunk and decadent, and sought novelty and excitement in diet. As a result, cooking has evolved in this great social change, absorbing the essence of various ethnic groups in various regions, ready to change, and glowing with new vitality.
1) Expansion of cooking materials
On the basis of five animals, five vegetables, five fruits and five flavors in the pre-Qin period, the food in the Han, Wei and Six Dynasties was further expanded. After Zhang Saitong's four domains, he introduced new vegetables such as eggplant, garlic, watermelon, cucumber, lentil and sword bean from Arabia and other places, which increased the variety of vegetarian food. The Theory of Salt and Iron said that in the winter of the Western Han Dynasty, there were still sunflower, leek, water spinach and perilla (also known as perilla, the seeds can be squeezed into oil, the tender leaves can be eaten and used as medicine) Qi Min Yao Shu records 31 kinds of vegetables in the Yellow River basin, as well as production techniques such as raising seedlings in small pots in greenhouse, catching seeds and sprouting leeks, and picking up roots and covering the soil. Yang Xiong's "Shu Du Fu" also introduced Linggen, cornus, bamboo shoots, lotus root, melon, preserved fruit, pepper and eggplant produced in the land of abundance, as well as loquat, cherry blossom, sweet persimmon and hazelnut in fruits. Tofu, which has the reputation of "vegetable meat", is also said to have come from the Han Dynasty and was invented by the alchemist of Liu An, the king of Huainan. Soon, dried tofu, yuba, Qianzhang, and tofu milk also came out one after another.
At this time, the scale of condiment production expanded, and Historical Records recorded the grand occasion of the first year of the Han Dynasty when big businessmen brewed more than 1, jars of wine, vinegar and tofu. Qi Min Yao Shu also collects the production methods of sugar products such as white candies, thin black caramels, amber candies, boiled preserved fruits, and baked candies. What is particularly important is that after sesame was introduced from the western regions, people learned to use it to extract oil. From then on, vegetable oil (including soybean oil and vegetable oil, etc. which appeared later) entered the big stage of cooking in China, prompting the birth of oil cooking. At that time, the output of vegetable oil was very large, not only for food, but also for military supplies. According to an article, sesame oil has played a great role in Battle of Red Cliffs.
In terms of animal raw materials, at this time, the feed consumption of pigs has already ranked first in the world, replacing the position of cattle, sheep and dogs and becoming the protagonist in meat food. The utilization rate of other meat products is also increasing, such as milk, which can extract cheese, raw crisp, cooked crisp and quince (cream extracted from crisp cheese). Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty dug Kunming pond to raise fish in Chang 'an, which was 2 kilometers long, and a lot of aquatic products were on the market. Another example is snakes and worms in Lingnan, shrimps and crabs in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, pheasants in southwest and bears and deer in northeast, all of which are brought to the table in their cradles. The meat sauce recorded in Qi Min Yao Shu is made of more than 1 kinds of raw materials, such as cattle, sheep, roe deer, rabbits, fish, shrimp, mussels and crabs.
In addition, among the staple foods, rice products start from flour products because rice ranks first among food crops. Mushrooms, flowers, herbs, spices, preserves, etc., have also attracted the attention of chefs.
China cooking in the new century
-------------------. At first, this activity of human beings was almost the same all over the world, which was to roast animal meat directly with fire, mainly to meet physiological needs. With the development and progress of historical civilization, due to the differences of regions, climates and products, and also due to the frequency of various exchanges (population exchange, cultural integration and economic circulation) and different attitudes towards food, the roughly same primitive cooking of human beings has been divided, and colorful and countless eating customs, cooking methods and delicious dishes have gradually formed. Nevertheless, there are still some similarities in cooking around the world, and many experts and scholars believe that the most representative cooking in the world can be divided into three schools and two types according to flavor. The three schools are oriental cooking centered on China cooking, western cooking centered on French cooking, and halal cooking centered on Turkey. There are two types: agricultural cooking based on agricultural economy, such as oriental cooking, and animal husbandry cooking based on animal husbandry, such as the latter two schools of cooking. They are all food and cooking civilizations formed after great waves and sand scouring in the long river of human history, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Taiwan Province's Kenxiang magazine pointed out that China cooking will gradually become the mainstream in the development of the world catering industry. Many experts predict that the 21st century will be the century of China cooking. We believe that these predictions are not delusions, but are based on a full understanding of the essential characteristics of China's cooking. The essential feature of China's cooking is to pay attention to health preservation and delicious enjoyment, that is, to fully meet people's physiological and psychological needs, and to pay attention to the unity of science and art. However, if we only stay in the bright future of China's cooking, turn a blind eye to the new needs of the people in China whose material and spiritual living standards are constantly improving, and turn a blind eye to the different needs of people all over the world who have their own traditional cooking or modern cooking, and remain complacent, then China's cooking will be difficult to take off in the new century. Of course, objective things always have their own laws of development, and China cooking is no exception. Its development to today's prosperity is not accidental, but is contributed by some historical inevitable factors. Therefore, in today's and tomorrow's increasingly frequent human communication, China cooking with strong inclusiveness and vitality will never be in the same place.