Changes in modern Chinese social customs?

1. The basic context of modern folk custom changes?

Modern folk custom changes are an important part of modern social changes and are consistent with the transformation of modern society. The changes in modern folk customs involve every corner and every level of society. The following is a summary from eight aspects such as etiquette, consumption, clothing, food, residence, travel, festivals, weddings and funerals, etc., which can roughly give a glimpse of the basic context of modern folk custom changes. ?

1. Changes in etiquette and customs: For a long time after the Opium War, traditional social etiquette and sacrificial customs, including titles, meeting etiquette, etc., still dominated society. When people meet, they should perform rituals such as bowing, cupping hands, running to worship, and saying hello. Kneeling was originally a gesture of greeting each other, but in the feudal era it became a etiquette of respect and surrender to reflect the hierarchy of feudal society. Kneeling is mainly for elders. The most solemn thing is to kneel three times and kowtow nine times, which is common among peers. It can be used as a bow or cup. Correspondingly, there is also a set of titles such as "adult", "master", "ma'am" and "old lady". However, after the founding of the People's Republic of China, in the coastal trade areas, influenced by the Western concept of equality, first among the new intellectuals, they gradually adopted ways of meeting such as shaking hands and bowing, and replaced them with "Mr.", "Ms.", "Miss" and "Comrade". the previous title. After the founding of the Republic of China in 1912, it was explicitly ordered that when offering sacrifices to Confucius, "the ritual of bowing and running should be removed, and three bows should be performed instead, and casual clothes should be used for sacrificial attire." (Note: "Kneeling down is not required for Ding sacrifices", [Shanghai] "Shenbao", March 5, 1912 . ) Soon after, the old etiquette of bowing, bowing, greeting, and cupping of hands in social interactions was officially abolished, and bowing was the main practice. On August 17 of the same year, the Republic of China government promulgated the "Ritual System", establishing the legal status of the new etiquette in the form of law (Note: "Oriental Magazine" Volume 9, No. 4, September 1912.). Bowing and using the titles "Sir" and "Jun" reflect the equal relationship between people in modern society. In short, new etiquette and customs such as hat removal, bowing, shaking hands, and applause have gradually become common "civilized rituals" and "civilized etiquette" in China, reflecting the progressive trend of social etiquette. In addition, the popularity of ballroom dancing, birthday parties, and colleagues’ banquets in cities all reflect new changes in modern social customs. ?

2. Changes in consumption customs: The invasion of modern Western capitalism and the emergence and rapid development of new commerce in China have had a huge impact on traditional consumption customs and directly led to changes in consumption customs. During the Daoguang period after the Opium War, the consumption of foreign goods gradually became fashionable among the upper class, but at first it was limited to a few areas such as treaty ports and wealthy bureaucratic families. By the end of the 19th century, as the number of treaty ports increased to more than 70, the consumption of foreign goods Across all walks of life, even in shops in remote places in Yunnan, you can see many foreign goods, including all kinds of harp cloth, serge, feather yarn, flannel, clocks, glass, etc., all available at a reasonable price "It's not shockingly expensive" (Note: Yao Hao, editor: "Historical Materials on Modern China's Foreign Trade", [Beijing] Zhonghua Book Company, 1962 edition, pp. 1106-1107.) Many "peasants are also vying for foreign cloth," especially middle-class families. "It is not considered a luxury to go out to spin official yarn and silk", "the average young man is wearing a lamb's fur as thick as cream" (Note: Song Yanzhai: "Puqi Township Scholars", quoted from Yan Changhong: "History of Social Customs in Modern China", Zhejiang People's Publishing House Society 1992 edition, page 82). In addition, Western lifestyles such as horse racing, boat racing, tennis, football, Western food, beer, Western snacks, Western drinks, amateur drama clubs, parks, indoor concerts, movies, electric lights, telephones, tap water, postal services, and trams have all affected China. Changes in people's consumption patterns have caused major changes in the consumption structure and consumption content of Chinese people. In addition, taking Shanghai as an example, pornographic consumption and entertainment consumption have also become important parts of the consumption patterns of businessmen and wealthy people. ?

3. Changes in clothing customs: China’s clothing customs have a long history, and there are colorful costumes in every era. By the Qing Dynasty, Chinese clothing was mostly robes and mandarin jackets, while women wore cheongsam. There is a folk proverb that says "peacock feathers, horseshoe sleeves". Clothing has the characteristics of strict hierarchy and flattering clothing. These shortcomings are incompatible with the equality requirements of modern people and the increasingly accelerating pace of life. For this reason, some Chinese people began to accept Western-style clothing. In the 1850s, some people in Hong Kong and Guangzhou imitated foreign dress, and more Chinese businessmen wore Western clothes. During the 1898 period, Kang Youwei advocated "easy service". At the beginning of the 20th century, more and more young people wore suits. In 1903, Wuzhou Middle School in Guangxi, where Hu Hanmin taught, allowed students to "put on foreign clothes and bow to Confucius and Mencius" on New Year's Day (Note: "Autobiography of Hu Hanmin", [Beijing] "Modern History Materials" No. 2, 1981.), It can be seen that there are not a few students wearing western clothes. At that time, students studying abroad mostly wore Western clothes. After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, there was a "foreign dress craze". In Tongdu Dayi, people "tend to wear Western clothes and hats, and there are countless of them" (Note: "Pan Yueqiao Please Use Domestic Products", [Shanghai] "Shenbao" 1912 March 4.), in a remote town, "civilian and military uniforms, with felt crowns, leather shoes, and short clothes, are completely European style" (Note: Customs in Volume 17 of "Cili County Chronicles" of the Republic of China). In addition, Western-style shirts, fleece jackets, sweaters, trousers, gauze socks, rubber shoes, leather shoes, etc. are gradually popularized. In short, the Western elements in Chinese clothing are constantly increasing. It is worth mentioning that the Mao suit is the most typical symbol of the combination of Chinese and Western clothing in modern times.

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In the broad sense of clothing folklore, dressing and "dressing up" are an organic unity. For example, tattoos, makeup, hairstyles, accessories, foot binding, etc. Before and after the Opium War, when Westerners came to China, the first thing they saw were men with long braids and women with bound feet. “For many years, all of Europe thought that the Chinese were the most ridiculous and strange nation in the world; Hair, braids, slanted eyes, strange clothes, and women’s disfigured feet have long provided subjects for comic cartoonists.” Ancient Books Publishing House, 1997 edition, page 51). Men wear long braids and large gowns, while women have their feet bound. This was the basic attire of Chinese people in the Qing Dynasty. However, after the 1880s, the image of Chinese people dressing up has changed significantly. First of all, some of the missionaries who came to China first advocated Tianzu. The reformers were the first to oppose foot-binding and advocated liberalization. In 1883, Kang Youwei established the No-Foot-Binding Association in Nanhai County, Guangdong, and in 1896 in Guangzhou. In 1897, Liang Qichao and others established the No-Foot-Binding Association in Shanghai, and soon the No-Foot-Binding Association was established. throughout the southeastern coastal areas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Emperor Guangxu also issued an edict prohibiting foot binding. In 1901, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an edict to ban foot-binding. After the founding of the Republic of China in 1912, interim President Sun Yat-sen ordered the Ministry of the Interior to issue orders to all provinces to ban foot-binding. From the perspective of opposing traditional morality and striving for women's liberation, the non-foot-binding movement has anti-feudal political significance and is a profound social revolution. ?

Although braided hair was an image symbol of men in the Qing Dynasty, it was the result of the assimilation of Manchu customs to the Han people. In front of foreigners, it has become a national symbol of the Chinese. And this national symbol, In modern times, it has become a symbol of "backwardness" and "uncivilization" that runs counter to the global trend of short hair in the civilized world. ?

During the 1898 Movement of 1898, Kang Youwei publicly asked the Qing government to "cut off hair" and change clothes into clothes in his letter to Emperor Guangxu, "Please Cut Off Hair and Change Clothing and Change to Yuan Zhe", and ordinary enlightened people also issued a call to cut their braids. The Qing government even allowed officials and citizens to cut their hair freely in 1911. After the outbreak of the Revolution of 1911, braids were gradually cut off. At that time, many barber shops even appeared to replace the many "head shavers". Even Yuan Shikai cut off his braids. The founding of the Republic of China also brought the popularity of short hair. ?

4. Changes in food customs: China is a country with a developed food culture in the world. By the Qing Dynasty, various cuisines such as Sichuan, Cantonese, and Shandong, as well as other local flavor dishes and snacks, had gradually formed. For a long period of time after the Opium War, the dietary habits of Chinese society did not change significantly. However, with the further penetration of Western culture, some Western diets were gradually introduced into China. After the mid-19th century, Western-style diets began to Popular in some coastal trading cities. In 1876, Ge Yuanxu noticed that among the Western restaurants opened in Hongkou, Shanghai, "the Chinese also eat there" (Note: Ge Yuanxu et al.: "Miscellaneous Notes on Travels to Shanghai·Songnan Dream Video·Shanghai Dream Shadow", published by Shanghai Ancient Books Society 1989 edition, page 30). By the 1980s and 1990s, Western restaurants were opened in Tianjin and Beijing one after another, and their reputation became increasingly popular. Looking through the "Ta Kung Pao" of this period, you can often see advertisements for "Pinshenglou", "Deyilou" and other "fan teahouses", saying that they specialize in "British and French cuisine" and "recruit skilled foreign kitchens to fine-tune "Western cuisine" (Note: "Ta Kung Pao" May 25 and August 23, the 28th year of Guangxu's reign.). Western-style restaurants in Beijing are of very high quality, such as "Liuguo Hotel, Dechang Hotel, and Chang'an Hotel, all of which serve Western-style meals." (Note: Hu Pu'an, editor: "China National Customs Chronicle" Volume 1, Part 2, Shanghai Bookstore, 1986 edition, p. 2 pages.), and even people from all walks of life in government and business circles often come and go. After the Xinhai Revolution, eating Western food became fashionable in some big cities. Haichang Taihansheng wrote in "Songbin Bamboo Branch Ci": "The vegetables compete for the best fragrance, the Western flavors are tasted first, the knives are dazzling, the basins are clean, and I love a glass of champagne" (Note: Gu Biquan: "Shanghai Customs and Monuments" Examination", [Shanghai] East China Normal University Press, 1993 edition, page 412). In short, in the "foreign" fashion, foods with Western flavors are gradually becoming more and more popular among Chinese people, such as beer, champagne, milk tea, soda, popsicles, ice cream, bread, pastries, cakes, etc., are all accepted by the Chinese people. It shows that Western-style diet has caused great changes in Chinese dietary customs and enriched the daily life of our people. ?

5. Changes in living customs: There are great differences in living customs between China and the West. There are both issues of urbanization and different customs. Royal buildings are outstanding representatives of ancient Chinese architecture, but there are obvious class differences between them and civilian residences. The courtyard houses in Beijing, the cave dwellings in the northwest plateau, the patio courtyards in the south, the stilted buildings and earth buildings of ethnic minorities in the southwest, and the felt bags in the northern grasslands are all typical forms of traditional Chinese residences. Usually, traditional Chinese houses are mainly bungalows, which is mainly related to China’s vast land, building materials, and backward construction technology. In modern times, due to the influence of Western architectural styles and the increase in urbanization, the Chinese also began to build Western-style or semi-Western-style residences in some treaty ports, and the trend of "huán①huì② imitating Western style" emerged. Deng Ziqin said in "History of Chinese Customs" that "garden pavilions in the late Qing Dynasty also incorporated Western-style architecture, and they were almost everywhere in Dayi."

In Tianjin, small foreign-style buildings gradually replaced the courtyard houses in the north and became the new trend of local residential buildings; in Shenyang, "the buildings are magnificent and similar to those in Europe and the west, so the buildings are vast and the clouds are high, and the sky is bright and sunny, stretching for dozens of miles" (Note: "Fengtiantong" "Zhi" Volume 97, etiquette 3, living room); in Qingdao, "most of the houses in the city are European-style buildings" (Note: Yuan Rongsou: "Jiao'ao Zhi·Minshe Zhi", page 72.); in Hankou. , "The land is every inch, the sky is dense, the Chinese and Western factories and shops are prosperous and wonderful" (Note: "Xiakou County Chronicles Preface" of the Republic of China.); In addition to the construction of a large number of Western-style buildings in Shanghai, Western architectural styles also appeared Chinese folk residences under the influence - lane houses. Influenced by Shanghai, Hankou, Nanjing, Fuzhou, Tianjin, Qingdao and other places also built lane housing near concessions, docks and commercial centers. In addition, with the introduction of Western-style architecture, steel, cement, machine-made bricks, building hardware, tap water, electric lights, etc. are also widely used. This caused major changes in the living customs of modern Chinese residents, especially urban residents. ?

6. Changes in travel customs: Travel customs are closely linked to transportation. In traditional society, the main means of transportation are horse-drawn carriages, ox-carts, sedan chairs, wooden boats, and horse riding, donkey riding, camel riding, etc. Its unique characteristics are that it mostly uses animal power, human power or natural force, is slow in speed and has a small range of activities. Lack of transportation will inevitably lead to social backwardness. In modern times, the introduction of Western trains, ships, trams, cars, bicycles, motorcycles, etc. gradually led to changes in China's traditional means of transportation. When people travel, they suddenly change from "countryside people" to "countryside people". After the rise of automobiles, the stereotype of "men and women are not intimate with each other" was broken and "it is not inappropriate for men and women to sit together" (Note: Volume 2 of "Xiakou County Chronicles" of the Republic of China, Customs and Land Chronicles.). Great changes have taken place in the traditional way of communication. ?

7. Changes in festival customs: The festival customs of the Chinese nation are unique. The modern seasonal festivals generally still follow the folk festival customs formed in ancient times, such as New Year's Day (Spring Festival), Lantern Festival Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-Autumn Festival, Laba Festival, etc., but these festivals are based on the traditional calendar, are products of feudal agricultural civilization, and are mostly based on traditional folk beliefs. Therefore, they have the backwardness of not adapting to modern industrial society. Very obvious. At the end of the Qing Dynasty, there were calls to change the calendar. In 1910, Liang Qichao wrote the article "Discussion on Switching to the Solar Calendar", advocating the use of the solar calendar instead of the lunar calendar (Note: Liang Qichao: "The Ice Drinking Room Collection" Collected Works 25, [Beijing] Zhonghua Book Company, 1989 edition , pp. 1-2.). After the establishment of the Republic of China government, it categorically announced on January 2, 1912 that the country would switch to the Gregorian calendar in order to be consistent with the internationally accepted calendar. After the calendar change, it will inevitably lead to changes in festival habits. First of all, some meaningful new festivals and anniversaries have appeared in people's political life and daily life. In addition to commemorating the founding day of the Republic of China (January 1st) and National Day (October 10th), new anniversaries in the early years of the Republic of China also include Revolutionary Martyrs’ Day (March 29th), National Humiliation Day (May 9th), Arbor Day (Qingming Festival), etc. In the 1920s and 1930s, there were International Women's Day (March 8), Children's Day (April 4), International Labor Day, Student Movement Memorial Day (May 4), Teachers' Day, etc. Festival (August 27) and so on. Especially influenced by Western customs, Christmas, Valentine's Day, etc. are also popular in cities. All these add splendor to China’s festival seasonal customs. ?

8. Changes in wedding and funeral customs: Wedding is a folk custom form to mark and celebrate marriage. The main form of marriage among the Han people in modern times is still the feudal arranged marriage. Influenced by the concept of gender equality and Western marriage customs, in the 1850s and 1960s, a small number of scholar-officials who had close contacts with foreigners used Western rites to get married. Editor: "Collection of Diaries of the Qing Dynasty", Shanghai People's Publishing House, 1982 edition, page 250). During the Guangxu period, the phenomenon of marriage regardless of wealth and family status appeared in economically developed areas, and Western-style weddings gradually gained influence. At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, civilized marriage became popular in big cities and coastal treaty ports. "During the Guangxuan period, civilized marriage became popular and was advocated in urban commercial ports. It was also gradually adopted in the mainland." (Note: Xu Ke: "Qingbaan Lei Chao" "Volume 5, [Beijing] Zhonghua Book Company, 1984 edition, pp. 1987-1988). In civilized marriage, except that the wedding venue is not in a church and no priest is required to preside over the marriage, many of the rituals are roughly transplanted from Western rites. Although there are some elements of traditional Chinese weddings, they are basically Westernized in spirit and form. In short, the popularity of "civilized marriage" in treaty ports and coastal towns in modern times reflects the changes in Chinese marriage customs and represents the correct direction of changes in marriage customs in the late Qing Dynasty.