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“The so-called knowledge, in terms of the content it reflects, is a reflection of the attributes and connections of objective things, and is the subjective image of the objective world in the human brain. In terms of its form of reflection activity, Sometimes it appears as the subject's perceptual perception or representation of things, which belongs to perceptual knowledge; sometimes it appears as concepts or laws about things, which belongs to rational knowledge."

From this definition, knowledge is the unity of subject and object. product. It originates from the external world, so knowledge is objective; but knowledge itself is not objective reality, but the reflection of the characteristics and connections of things in the human brain. It is a subjective representation of objective things. Knowledge is the interaction between subject and object. Based on the reflection activities of the human brain.

Knowledge can be divided into narrow and broad senses:

Webster's dictionary definition in 1997: Knowledge is the understanding of things and states obtained through practice, research, contact or investigation, It is the understanding of science, art or technology, and the sum of human understanding and experience about nature and society.

In short, knowledge in a broad sense: Knowledge is the sum of human understanding and experience accumulated about nature and society. This definition shows that knowledge is a summary and reflection of the objective world from the human subjective world. It is a large amount of organized information, an organized statement about facts and ideas, and provides some kind of thought-through judgment and the result of some kind of experiment.

-Classification of knowledge

"Knowledge-based Economy" published by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OCED) believes that:

The first category of "Governors" "Know-what refers to knowledge about facts. It can also be understood as know-when and know-where, which means what kind of problems can be solved at what time, place or conditions

The second type of "know-why" refers to scientific theories on natural principles or laws. The production of this type of knowledge is completed in specialized research institutions, such as laboratories or universities

The third type "Knowledge that guides how to do something" know-how refers to the skill or ability to do something, which is called technical intelligence or trade secrets. Its typical representative is the technical know-how developed and kept internally by an enterprise

The fourth category "who and how creates knowledge" know-who, focusing on the understanding of creative ideas, methods, means, processes, and characteristics

Among them, the "what" and "why" "The first and second types of knowledge, that is, the theoretical system on the laws and principles of movement of nature and society, can be called the concept of knowledge in a narrow sense. Formally speaking, some people call it "tangible knowledge", which is very easy to encode (informatization) and can be obtained through various media. The third and fourth categories of knowledge are more unrecorded experiential knowledge, which some people call "tacit knowledge" or "intangible knowledge" and need to be obtained through practice.

- Cognitive psychology’s understanding of knowledge

Cognitive psychology studies knowledge from the perspective of the source of knowledge, the generation process of individual knowledge, and the form of representation.

For example, Piaget believed that experience (knowledge) comes from the interaction between the individual and the environment. This kind of experience can be divided into two categories:

One is physical experience, which comes from The external world is the understanding of objective things and their connections obtained by individuals acting on objects;

The second is logic-mathematical experience, which comes from the actions of the subject and is the individual's understanding of the interaction between actions. coordinated results. For example, children gain experience in conservation of quantity by playing with objects, and students gain knowledge of mathematical principles through mathematical reasoning.

Piaget’s definition of knowledge is expressed from the production process of individual knowledge

Bloom’s definition of knowledge is “the recollection of specific things and universal principles, the "Recollection of methods and processes, or recollection of a pattern, structure or framework", which is a description of phenomena from the perspective of the content contained in knowledge.

- Modern cognitive psychology generally believes that knowledge can be divided into two categories:

① Declarative knowledge

② Procedural knowledge

In terms of function, declarative knowledge is knowledge used to answer the question "what is something"

? Procedural knowledge is knowledge used to answer the question "how to do it"

From a measurement perspective, to see whether a person masters a certain knowledge, we must not only look at "how he says it", but also "how he does it", including knowledge that is difficult to express in words

For example, To check a student's mastery of geometry knowledge, we must not only see whether he understands the concepts and propositions (theorems) of geometry, but also see whether he can skillfully use heuristics that can be used to solve geometric problems.

-Declarative knowledge:

Declarative knowledge is a kind of knowledge that an individual has clear extraction clues and can therefore directly state, usually including information about a specific event, fact, or experience. Generalized assertions and deeper principles reflecting the essence of truth are mainly used to explain what, why, and how things are, so as to distinguish and identify things.

Declarative knowledge is descriptive, and its cognitive unit is a proposition.

- Procedural knowledge:

Procedural knowledge is a kind of knowledge that the individual has no clear clues to extract, so its existence can only be indirectly inferred through some form of activity, usually including Heuristics, various methods, plans, practices, procedures, routines, strategies, strategies, techniques and tips, etc., used to describe what to do and how to do it.

Procedural knowledge is mainly declarative, and its basic cognitive unit usually adopts rules with a general form: goal, situation → action

1. Declarative knowledge is general Yes, but difficult to apply.

Procedural knowledge is easy to apply but is restricted by specific situations

2. Declarative knowledge involves one’s environment

Procedural knowledge involves one’s goals and actions

3. The total amount of declarative knowledge can sometimes be called knowledge structure

The total amount of procedural knowledge can be called heuristic structure

Any human intellectual behavior requires both types of knowledge

For example, "The bisectors of the two base angles of an isosceles triangle are equal" is a proposition and belongs to declarative knowledge

And "To prove that line segments AB and CD are equal (goal), if they are bisectors of two angles of the same triangle (scenario), then prove that these two ∠ are base angles of an isosceles triangle (action)" is a heuristic Formulas belong to procedural knowledge.

The former is an objective description of the graphic characteristics of an isosceles triangle and does not involve the goal and the actions directed by it.

The latter is a recommended action to be taken in a specific situation, which action is determined by the goal to be achieved and the situation faced.

Propositions can be true or false, and the truth of the proposition is the value of the former.

The value of heuristics lies in their ability to effectively solve problems. Heuristics are derived from principles but are not identical to principles.

Obviously, the acquisition of declarative knowledge mainly relies on understanding and memory; while the acquisition of procedural knowledge mainly relies on practical activities and practical training, and must be obtained through the learner's personal practice.

Procedural knowledge is mainly inferred from what an individual will do, so procedural knowledge is essentially a set of operating rules or procedures that control and dominate human behavior.

So modern cognitive psychology actually includes the concept of skills.

"Cognitive strategies" are essentially a set of rules or procedures on how to learn, remember and think, and also fall within the scope of procedural knowledge.

The above view of knowledge is broad. It includes what we usually refer to as skills, cognitive strategies, etc., and even metacognitive knowledge.

Furthermore, cognitive psychologists classify procedural knowledge from two dimensions:

① Automatic and controlled

For example, when students are solving When solving mathematical problems, reviewing the problem, determining the solution plan, adjusting the problem-solving process, etc. are generally controlled by the subject's consciousness, while the extraction and combination of existing knowledge are performed automatically and generally do not require conscious attention.

②General and special

General procedural knowledge: analysis, induction, from general to special, from special to general

Special procedural knowledge Knowledge: Undetermined coefficient method, matching method, mathematical induction method

Of course, these two divisions are relative, and there are actually many "intermediate types" of procedural knowledge

-Knowledge Source and acquisition

There are two main categories:

First, directly derived from objective things that generate information;

Second, through the transmission of information carriers or media, Obtained indirectly through communication

Among them, Piaget believed that knowledge is internalized step by step through behavior

Bruner believed that knowledge first appeared in the form of procedures - ---Mediating icon (visual) form-----Symbolic (declarative) form

Therefore, participating in problem solving will help individuals transform theory (declarative knowledge) into problem solving Program (procedural knowledge)

-The relationship between information and knowledge

Difference: Information is tangible, independent of actions and decisions, has changed form after processing, and is material Products that have nothing to do with the environment and can be copied

For example, animals send out "danger" signals, "The lion is coming"

The information also involves subjective and objective participation, but it is simpler

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Knowledge is intangible, related to actions and decisions, changes in thinking after processing, spiritual product, environment changes meaning, can only be transferred after learning, and cannot be copied (invisible knowledge)

Contact : Knowledge is a large amount of organized information. Obtaining knowledge depends on obtaining information; information is the intermediary through which knowledge is formed and disseminated, rather than knowledge itself. Knowledge is useful information after careful research and understanding. It is the result of human processing of information. The product of .